Practicing Austerities

17.1Monks, at that time a son of Rāma by the name of Rudraka arrived in Rājagṛha, where he stayed with a large group of seven hundred of his students. He was teaching his students the principles of the disciplined conduct necessary for attaining the state where there is neither perception nor nonperception. [F.120.a]

Monks, the Bodhisattva saw that Rudraka, the son of Rāma, was in charge of a group, indeed a large group, and that as the head of the congregation, he was well-known, popular, venerated by the masses, and recognized by all scholars. Witnessing this, the Bodhisattva thought to himself:

17.2“Rudraka, the son of Rāma, is really in charge of a group, indeed a large group; he is the head of the congregation and, moreover, well-known, popular, venerated by the masses, and recognized by all scholars. [244] However, unless I begin to practice disciplined conduct and austerities myself in his presence, he will never perceive me as someone special. He will also not have an understanding based on direct perception. In this way he will never renounce his concentration, absorption, and states of equilibrium, which are fabricated, defiled, and perpetuating.

“Therefore I must first actualize these experiences myself. In that way I can demonstrate that his worldly absorptions, which are limited to concentration and which only support states of equilibrium, do not carry a result. I will go to Rudraka, the son of Rāma, and become accepted as his student in order to demonstrate the superiority of the qualities of my own absorption. I will demonstrate to him that fabricated absorptions are pointless.”

17.3Monks, with this purpose in mind, the Bodhisattva went to see Rudraka, the son of Rāma. When he met Rudraka, the Bodhisattva asked, “My friend, who is your teacher? Who taught you so well?”

Rudraka, the son of Rāma, answered, “My friend, I did not have a teacher. Nevertheless I did reach a genuine understanding on my own.”

The Bodhisattva then asked, “What is it you understand?”

Rudraka replied, “The way of equilibrium, which is neither perception nor nonperception.” [F.120.b]

Next the Bodhisattva asked, “Could you please allow me to follow you so that I can obtain the instructions for your path of absorption?”

Rudraka replied, “Yes indeed, I will let you follow me so that you can obtain instructions for my path of absorption.”

17.4With this the Bodhisattva went off and sat down with his legs crossed. Now, no sooner did the Bodhisattva sit down before he actualized hundreds of all the main types of worldly and transcendent equilibriums in all their many details. [245] The reason he could do this was because he had become a master of his mind, possessing a superior accumulation of merit and wisdom, a special fruition of all his previous trainings, and a distinctive familiarity with all absorptions.

At that point the Bodhisattva arose from his seat, mindful and attentive, and went to see Rudraka, the son of Rāma. He then addressed him: “My friend, is there any higher path than the state of neither perception nor nonperception?”

“No,” Rudraka replied.

17.5The Bodhisattva then thought to himself, “Rudraka is not the only one who has faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. I am also faithful, diligent, mindful, concentrated, and wise.” He therefore addressed Rudraka with these words: “My friend, I have now understood the teaching in which you are adept.”

Rudraka replied, “Well, in that case, come, we should teach everyone together.” And accordingly he installed the Bodhisattva as a teacher on the same level as himself.

The Bodhisattva then said, “My friend, this path does not free the mind. Neither does it free one from attachment. It also does not lead to cessation or peace. It does not bring higher knowledge, nor does it lead to complete awakening. [F.121.a] It does not make one a mendicant or a priest, and it does not lead to nirvāṇa.”

Monks, in this way the Bodhisattva made up his mind regarding Rudraka, the son of Rāma, and his followers. He left them, saying, “This is enough; I am leaving.”

17.6At that point there were five ascetic companions who were learning religious practices under the guidance of Rudraka, the son of Rāma. They thought to themselves, “Even though we have tried and persisted for a long time in this way, we have not been able to realize our goal. Yet this mendicant Gautama was able to realize it and manifest it through such little hardship. And now he doesn’t want it! Surely he must be searching for something even higher than that. Surely he will become a teacher of the world. Whatever he is about to discover, he will probably share it with us.” And with this, the five ascetic companions left Rudraka, the son of Rāma, to follow the Bodhisattva instead. [246]

17.7Monks, by that point the Bodhisattva had remained in Rājagṛha for as long as he wanted, and now he left together with the five ascetic companions in order to wander through the kingdom of Magadha. Somewhere on the road between Rājagṛha and Gayā, they met a group of people who were enjoying a feast. This group called out to the Bodhisattva and the five ascetic companions and invited them to sit down and participate in the feast.

Monks, afterward the Bodhisattva proceeded through Magadha and eventually arrived at Gayā. At the peak of Mount Gayā, the Bodhisattva stayed in order to apply himself to strenuous practice. As he was staying there, three parables that he had never previously heard or thought of came to his mind. What were these three?

17.8First he thought, “There are some monks and priests who are unable to separate their mind and body from the objects of their desire. Instead they delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, crave and thirst for them, become senseless for them, and are burned by them. This striving after the objects of desire never brings peace. They further harm themselves and torment their bodies and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering. Therefore, in doing so, they become incapable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is superior to any human teaching. This is like a person who tries in vain to create a fire in order to make light by rubbing together two wet pieces of wood that have been submerged in water. He will not be able to produce fire and make light. This is the same as the monks and priests who are unable to separate their mind and body from the objects of their desire. They delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, crave and thirst for them, become senseless for them, and are burned by them. This striving after the objects of desire never brings peace. [F.121.b] [247] They further harm themselves and torment their bodies and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering. Therefore, in doing so, they become incapable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is superior to any human teaching.” This was the first example that he had never thought or heard of that came to the Bodhisattva’s mind.

17.9Second, he continued to think, “There are also monks and priests who have separated their mind and body from the objects of their desire. Still they delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, crave and thirst for them, become senseless for them, and are burned by them. This striving after the objects of desire never brings peace. [F.122.a] They further harm themselves and torment their bodies and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering. Therefore, in doing so, they become incapable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is superior to any human teaching. This is like a person who tries in vain to create a fire in order to make light by placing a wet piece of wood on the ground and rubbing another wet piece of wood against it. He will be unable to produce fire and make light. This is the same as some monks and priests who have separated their mind and body from the objects of their desire. They delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, become senseless for them, and crave for them to the extent that they never find peace. In this way they harm themselves and torment their bodies and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering, as if being burned. Therefore, in doing so, they become incapable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is much supreme to the highest human teaching.” This was the second example that he had never thought or heard of that came to the Bodhisattva’s mind.

17.10Third, he thought, “There are also other monks and priests who have separated their mind and body from the objects of their desire. Although they also delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, crave and thirst for them, and become senseless for them, they do find peace. Although they do harm themselves and torment their bodies and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering, in doing so they do become capable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is superior to human teaching. They are like a person who wishes to create a fire in order to make light, and therefore places a dry piece of wood on the ground and rubs another dry piece of wood against it. For such a person the fire will ignite, and light will shine. This is how there are also other monks and priests who have separated their mind and body from the objects of their desire. Although they also delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, crave and thirst for them, and become senseless for them, they do find peace. Although they do harm themselves and torment their bodies and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering as if being burned, in doing so they do become capable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is much supreme to the highest human teaching.” This was the third example that he had never thought or heard of that came to the Bodhisattva’s mind. [248]

17.11Monks, then the Bodhisattva thought to himself, “I have also separated my body from the objects of desire. Although I also delight in those objects and feel attached to them, long for them, wish for them, strive for them, crave and thirst for them, and become senseless for them, I do nevertheless find peace. Although I do harm myself and torment my body and end up with intense and unbearable feelings of suffering, as if being burned, in doing so I have become capable of actualizing the noble wisdom vision that is much supreme to the highest human teaching.”

17.12Monks, in this way the Bodhisattva remained in Gayā at the peak of Mount Gayā for as long as he pleased before he proceeded by foot to the village Senāpati near Urubilvā. On the way he passed by the Nairañjanā River. He witnessed its pure water and beautiful bathing areas and saw how trees and groves adorned the riverbank and the surrounding village. This made the Bodhisattva very delighted, and he thought to himself, “What an amazing place! It is so pleasant! [F.122.b] It is a great place to stay, and it is perfect for someone of noble family who is wholly dedicated to renunciation. Since I am wholly dedicated to renunciation, I will stay here.”

17.13Monks, the Bodhisattva continued to think, “I have been born in this world at the time of the five degenerations among beings who are occupied with lowly pursuits. These various religious practitioners have so many orientations and views. They wholly fixate on the body. They seek to purify the body by oppressing it in various ways. In complete ignorance, they give instructions. Some, for example, make use of spells, lick their hands, remain seated, cease talking, ingest various roots, abstain from eating meat and fish, spend the summer indoors, refrain from wine and beverages and even water, and take their nourishment from one or three or five or seven houses.

17.14“Some consume roots, fruits, water plants, kuśa grass, leaves, cow dung, cow urine, milk, yogurt, butter, molasses, or seeds that have not been ground. There are others who wash and eat the leftovers that swans and pigeons throw away. Others live in villages or remote places. There are others who practice living like an ox, a deer, a dog, a pig, a monkey, or an elephant. There are some who only stand, some who don’t talk, and some who hold the vīrāsana body posture. Some live on just one mouthful of food, or anything up to seven mouthfuls. Some eat only once a day, some eat once every twenty-four hours, while others eat every four or five or six days. [249] Others fast for a fortnight or a month, according to the moon.

17.15“Some dress themselves in the feathers of vultures or owls, while others wear planks, muñja grass, asana bark, darbha grass, or valvaja grass. Others don a cloak made of camel wool, goat wool, horsehair, or simply a hide. Still others only put on wet clothes. Some sleep on a stool or in the water, while others sleep in ashes, on rocks, gravel, planks, thorns, grass, [F.123.a] or sticks. Others sleep with their heads toward the ground, in squatting posture, or on the bare ground. There are some who wear one, two, three, four, five, six, seven or more pieces of clothing, while others go naked. There are some who have a ritual of bathing, and others who make a ritual out of never bathing. Some let their hair and nails and beards grow long, while others keep their hair braided in a topknot. There are also some who subsist on just a single juniper berry, sesame seed, or grain of rice.

17.16“Some smear their bodies with ashes, soot, dead flower pollen, coal dust, dirt, and mud. Others adorn themselves with bodily hair, reeds, scalp hair, fingernails, rags, ribs, and skulls. They drink hot water, water leftover after washing rice, water filtered through a blanket, and dishwater. Some wear dyes of charcoal, minerals, or saffron, shave their heads, carry vases, human skulls, and clubs.

17.17“In such ways do these fools believe themselves to be pure. Some inhale smoke and fire, stare at the sun, and perform the five-fires ritual. They stand on one foot, raise one hand in the air, and stay in just one spot. Such are the hardships that they undergo. They use burning chaff and coals and tandoor ovens. They walk on glowing rocks, scorching fire, or scalding water. Some go to a sacred riverbank and die there. They follow the course of such practices.

17.18“They believe that they become pure by reciting oṃ, vaṣaṭ, svadhā, svāhā, the benedictions, collected praises, or invocations; by repeating mantras or dhāraṇīs; or by practicing meditation. Considering themselves pure, they take refuge in and pay homage to beings that they believe to be essential, such as Brahmā, Indra, Rudra, [F.123.b] Viṣṇu, Devī, Kumāra, Mātṛ, Katyāyanī, Candra, Āditya, Vaiśravaṇa, Varuṇa, the Vāsus, the Aśvins, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, demigods, garuḍas, kinnaras, mahoragas, rākṣasas, bhūtas, kumbhāṇḍas, pretas, gaṇas, ancestors, piśācas, devarṣis, rājarṣis, and brahmarṣis.

17.19“They also take refuge in the elements, such as earth, water, fire, wind, and space. Likewise they resort for refuge in mountains, rivers, sources of rivers, lakes, ponds, pools, oceans, reservoirs, lotus ponds, and wells; trees, bushes, vines, grass, tree trunks; cow pens, cemeteries, crossroads where four roads meet, and markets. They pay homage to houses, pillars, and rocks; clubs, swords, bows, axes, arrows, spears, and tridents. They also believe that yogurt, butter, mustard seeds, barley, magic strings, dūrvā grass, jewels, gold, silver, [250] and other such items are auspicious.

17.20“This is what these extremists rely on because of their fear of cyclic existence. In doing so, some of them think, ‘Because of these methods, in the afterlife we shall find heaven and final emancipation.’ In this way they go astray on errant paths. They seek refuge in that which cannot offer protection. They take as auspicious that which is not auspicious. They take as pure that which is not pure.

17.21“However, if I now attain mastery in the prescribed practices and austerities, all the opposing views will become suppressed. I will then demonstrate to these people, who disregard karmic actions, the inescapability of the fruits of actions. And as for the gods in the realms of meditative concentration and form, if I can demonstrate a superior meditative concentration, [F.124.a] they will become interested.”

17.22Monks, following up on these thoughts, the Bodhisattva now began a six-year period of extremely fierce prescribed practices and hardships that were intensely difficult, the hardest of all difficult practices. The reason for calling this difficult practice is because it is excruciatingly difficult, and therefore it is described in such terms. Except for a bodhisattva who has reached his last existence and rests in equanimity in all-pervasive absorption, there is no one, human or nonhuman, who is capable of undergoing such hardships. This absorption is called all-pervasive because as the Bodhisattva rested in equanimity in the fourth absorption, from the very beginning all movements of the breath slowed down and ceased, and the absorption was nonconceptual. There was no thought, no movement, no conceptual mind, and no change, yet it was all-pervading and not dependent on anything. Previously no student, master, solitary buddha, or bodhisattva who had taken up such conduct had ever entered this absorption. This absorption is likened to space, because like space‍—which is motionless, uncaused, and changeless‍—there is nowhere it cannot reach. In that way it is similar to space, and therefore it is described as such.

17.23Monks, in this way the Bodhisattva displayed true wonders to the worldly ones. He did so in order to shatter the proud satisfaction of extreme practitioners, to vanquish the opponents’ attacks, [251] to attract the gods, and to correct nihilists and eternalists, who disregard karmic action. He also did so in order to declare the results of merit, to teach the results of wisdom, to distinguish the levels of concentration, to demonstrate the power and strength of the body, [F.124.b] and to develop bravery of mind. For these reasons the Bodhisattva sat down on the rugged earth, crossed his legs, and began to punish and torment his body through his mental resolve.

17.24Monks, for eight winter nights I punished and tormented my body. Sweat ran from my armpits and from my forehead. As the sweat fell on the ground, the drops turned into hoarfrost, heated up, and evaporated. It was just like a strong man who grabs a very feeble person by the neck and strangles him. Such was the manner, monks, in which my mind brought punishment and torment on my body. Sweat ran from my armpits and from my forehead and, as the sweat fell on the ground, the drops turned into hoarfrost, then grew hot, and evaporated.

17.25Monks, at that point I thought to myself, “I should now practice the all-pervading absorption.” And, monks, as I was practicing the all-pervading absorption, from my mouth and my nose all movement of breath ceased, and within the openings of my ears an immense sound was heard. The sound was as loud and intense as when a blacksmith’s bellows is being squeezed. Monks, all the while there was no movement of my breath through my mouth and nose, there was this intense, loud noise in my ears.

17.26Monks, I then continued to think, “I should practice the all-pervading absorption.” Since my mouth, nose, and ears were blocked, [252] the breath went up into my skull. Monks, it felt as if someone was striking my skull with a sharp spear. Monks, in that way, as my mouth, nose, and ears were blocked, my in-breaths and out-breaths were pushing up and hitting my skull.

Some gods noticed the suffering of the Bodhisattva and remarked, [F.125.a] “Oh no! It seems the young Siddhārtha is dying!”

The others remarked, “No, he’s not dying. This is simply how worthy ones abide in absorption.”

17.27On this occasion, they then sang these verses:

17.29These gods then went to the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and told Māyādevī, “It seems that the young prince is about to pass away.”

Māyādevī surrounded herself with a retinue of goddesses, and at midnight they went to the bank of the Nairañjanā River where the Bodhisattva was staying. She saw how thin the Bodhisattva had become, and it appeared as if he had died. Upon seeing this, she was choked with tears and began to weep. She then sang these verses:

17.33The Bodhisattva answered:

17.34Māyādevī replied:

17.35Then, in order to console her, the Bodhisattva told her, “As for grieving for your son, there is no need to worry; your hardship will pay off. Renouncing the world for the sake of awakening is indeed meaningful. What the priest Asita predicted shall come true. Likewise the prediction of Dīpaṃkara shall come to pass.

17.37As soon as Māyādevī heard this, she became overjoyed, and the hair on her body stood on end. Sprinkling the Bodhisattva with māndārava flowers, she circumambulated him three times. Then, accompanied by heavenly music, she went back to her abode. [254]

17.38Monks, at that point I thought to myself, “Because some religious practitioners and priests believe that one becomes purified by eating very little food, I must also be diligent in fasting.” Monks, I realized that I should henceforth live on a single juniper berry and restrain myself from eating two. Monks, you might think that the juniper berries of that time were larger than now, but that is not the case. They were just as they are now.

Monks, as I now began living on just a single juniper berry, never taking a second, my body became extremely weak and emaciated. Monks, my limbs and joints began to resemble the knots of the āsītakī plant or the kālā plant. My rib cage resembled the sides of a crab. Like an old stable for horses or elephants where the two sides have caved in and made the inside rafters visible, [F.126.a] the insides of my chest became visible through both sides of my ribs. My spine appeared uneven and rugged, like a braid of hair with all its ups and downs.

17.39Just as a bitter gourd that has been cut too early withers, dries out, and develops cracks, likewise my head began to wither, dry out, and develop cracks. Just like a well during the end of summer, where the reflection of the stars has sunk and is hard to notice, my eyeballs had sunk into my head and become barely visible. My legs resembled the legs of a goat or a camel, and so it was for my armpits, belly, chest, and so forth. Monks, when at that point I tried touching my belly with my hand, I actually ended up touching my spine. I was so hunched over that I fell whenever I tried to stand. When I finally managed to get up [255] and wipe my dust-covered body with my hands, my decayed hair fell out of my body. Previously my complexion had been beautiful and smooth, but now this radiance was all gone due to exerting myself in harsh travails.

17.40The people who lived in the villages surrounding the area where I was practicing began to say, “Oh my, the mendicant Gautama has turned black! Have you seen, he’s so dark! The mendicant Gautama has the color of the madgura fish! Previously his complexion was so beautiful, but now it has all changed.”

17.41Monks, at that point I thought to myself, “I must apply myself to eating even less than this.” I realized that I should henceforth live on only a single grain of rice and restrain myself from eating two. Monks, you may think that the rice grains of that time were larger than now, but that is not the case. They were just as they are now.

Monks, as I now lived on only a single grain of rice, my body quickly grew thinner, and people began to say, [F.126.b] “Oh my! The mendicant Gautama has turned black! Have you seen, he’s so dark! The mendicant Gautama has the color of the madgura fish! Previously his complexion was so beautiful, but now it has all changed.”

17.42Monks, at that point I thought to myself, “I must apply myself to eating even less than this.” I realized that I should henceforth live on only a single sesame seed and restrain myself from eating two. Just as before, I grew even thinner, and people continued to remark on how my previously beautiful complexion had disappeared.

17.43Monks, I then thought to myself, “There are some monks and priests who believe that they are purified by abstaining from eating food. I should also apply myself to completely abstaining from any food.” Monks, I then began a complete fast. Monks, as I now began living without any sustenance, my body became extremely weak and emaciated. Monks, my limbs and joints gradually became twice, three times, four times, five times, and finally ten times as thin as the knots of the āsītakī and kālā plants. My rib cage resembled the sides of a crab, [256] and it looked like a collapsed stable with rafters exposed on either side. My spine appeared like a braided tuft of hair. My skull looked like a cracked gourd. My eyeballs appeared like stars in a sunken well. Monks, whenever I thought I should stand up, I tried to do so, but my body was so hunched over that I fell every time. When I finally managed to get up with great effort and wipe my dust-covered body with my hands, my body hair, its roots rotten, came out of my body. Previously my complexion had been beautiful and smooth, but now this radiance had disappeared because of exerting myself in extreme austerities.

The people who lived in the villages surrounding the area where I was practicing began to say, “Oh my, the mendicant Gautama has turned black! Have you seen, he’s so dark! The mendicant Gautama has the color of the madgura fish! Previously his complexion was so beautiful, but now it has all changed.” [F.127.a]

17.44During this time King Śuddhodana sent a messenger every day to see the Bodhisattva. Monks, in this way the Bodhisattva displayed true wonders to the world. He did so in order to shatter the proud satisfaction of extremists, to vanquish the opponents’ attacks, to attract the gods, and to show the nihilists and eternalists, who disregard karmic action and the ripening of karmic results. He lived on just a single sesame seed, a single juniper berry, and a single grain of rice in order to demonstrate the accumulation of merit, to teach the qualities of great wisdom, and to distinguish the levels of absorption. In this way he demonstrated hardships for six years without ever weakening his resolve.

17.45The Bodhisattva remained sitting cross-legged for six years. He simply sat the way he was, without forsaking his activity. When the sun was shining, he did not seek shade. When the shade fell on him, he did not move into the sun. Never did he seek shelter from the wind, the sun, and the rain. He never chased away mosquitoes, bees, and poisonous snakes. He did not defecate, urinate, spit, or blow his nose. Neither did he bend his limbs or stretch them out. He never lay down on his belly, side, or back.

17.46The hot season, the winter, and the great clouds, storms, rain, and lightning of autumn [257] all assailed the body of the Bodhisattva. In fact the Bodhisattva did not even use his hand to shelter himself. He did not block his senses, but neither did he follow after the objects of his senses. Those who passed by the Bodhisattva, such as village boys or girls, ox herders, cow herders, grass collectors, wood collectors, and those looking for dung, all thought he was a demon made of dust. They made fun of him and sprinkled him with dust.

17.47In this way the Bodhisattva spent six years, during which time his body became increasingly feeble, weak, and emaciated. When people placed grass or cotton in his ears, it would stick out of his nostrils. When they did the same with his nostrils, the grass and cotton would emerge from his ears. When they placed things in his ears, they would stick out of his mouth. And when they stuffed things in his mouth, they would come out of his ears and nose. [F.127.b] Things put in his nostrils would appear out of his ears, nose, and mouth.

17.48The gods, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, demigods, garuḍas, kinnaras, and mahoragas who witnessed the qualities of the Bodhisattva watched over him day and night, making offerings and forming aspirations. While the Bodhisattva demonstrated austerities for six years, one thousand two hundred billion gods and humans were matured in the Three Vehicles.

17.49On this topic, it is said:

17.80This concludes the seventeenth chapter, on practicing austerities.