Notes

n.1In both catalogs it is listed as being sixty ślokas in length, although the Phangthangma notably does not list it under the Ratnakūṭa collection but instead includes it among a general list of short sūtras less than one bampo in length.

n.2Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 456.

n.3Pederson 1980, p. 60.

n.4Currently the manuscript is kept in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Vinītā’s critical edition is based on a copy of the manuscript kept in the China Tibetology Research Center. For further details on the state of this manuscript see Vinītā 2010, vol. I,1, pp. xv–xvii.

n.5Our research has revealed two Sakya texts that quote a text called seng ges zhus pa (Siṃha’s Questions), saying that it decries the negative effects of giving someone alcohol: “If one gives alcohol to another, one will be born five hundred times with crippled limbs” (gzhan la chang sbyin na skye ba lnga brgyar lag rdum du skye). See Könchok Lhündrup and Sangyé Phuntsok, sa skya’i chos ’byung gces bsdus volume 4, p. 55; the same quote is found in Künga Sangpo, kun dga’ bzang po’i bka’ ’bum, volume 4, folio 314.a (p. 627). However, this passage is not found in any version of the text known to us. In fact, the sūtra seems to only discuss virtuous causes for positive qualities and does not discuss the inverse negative ones.

n.6Our research included a thorough survey of Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan resources for any mention of Siṃha. There is a Licchavi general named Sīha (the Pali equivalent of Siṃha), who questions the Buddha about generosity, found in the Anguttara Nikāya of the Pali canon (A.iii.38f; iv.79f), but he is unrelated to the Prince Siṃha of this sūtra. Further research on Siṃha’s identity might consider untranslated Chinese sources, which falls outside the scope of this project.

n.7The first of the two fragments, IOL Tib J 201, is not currently available. The second fragment, IOL Tib J 202, did not show any significant difference from the passages found in the Kangyur witnesses.

n.8The opening in the Sanskrit manuscript is somewhat unclear, as the traditional opening itself immediately enters into verse, and the description of the Buddha’s retinue is omitted. Vinītā suggests it is likely that this opening became corrupted through the processes of versification. See Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 456. Vinītā’s conjectural reconstruction for this opening is as follows: “Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One left Rājagṛha, / the victor, the unparalleled one, would roam about at the Vulture’s Peak” (evaṃ mayā śrutam ekasmin samaye bhagavān rājagṛhāt samuddhitaḥ | vyavahared gṛdhrakūṭe jino hy apratipudgalaḥ ||). “And together with a great saṅgha of bodhisattvas” is missing in Taishō 310.

n.9These two lines are included in the first verse of the Potala Sanskrit manuscript, where Vinītā has conjecturally reconstructed the phrase jino hy apratipudgalaḥ (“the victor, the unparalleled one”). Because of this, verses 1–4 of the Tibetan are out of line with the Sanskrit but realign with verse 5 in both editions due to the omission in the Sanskrit of the second half of verse 4 (see n.­15). These two lines are absent in Taishō 310.

n.10Taishō 310 reads “the beloved son” (所愛之子).

n.11It is curious that the anonymously translated Chinese version (Taishō 344) names the prince 和休 (he xiu). Old Chinese phonology (Karlgren 1957) give this as g’ăb χia̯b or similar, whereas Tang dynasty reconstructions (Stimson 1976) would suggest *huɑ*xiou, which approximates the Indic siṃha only if the sequence of syllables is reversed. Assuming the possibility that 和休 is metathesis, 休和 may denote an attempt to transcribe the Prakrit form sīha (Woolner 1912, p. 213), which also means “Lion.”

n.12The N, H, and S editions of the Kangyur differ from D and the Sanskrit, as they all have “noblewomen,” or literally “daughters of merchants” (tshong dpon bu mo); however, all the Kangyur editions later on in verse 47 refer to Siṃha’s attendants as “these brahmin boys” (bram ze’i khye’u). Usually, the term khye’u refers to boys, so we have translated it accordingly. Taishō 310 reads “five hundred friends” (與其同友五百人俱。).

n.13This line is absent in Taishō 310.

n.14Taishō 310 has “various types of parasols” (種種幢幡寶蓋) rather than “golden parasols.”

n.15These last two lines in verse 4 are not found in the Sanskrit edition or any of the Chinese translations.

n.16Taishō 310 has “Tathāgata” (如來).

n.17Taishō 310 reads “How can one be lotus-born?” (蓮花中化生).

n.18This verse is rendered in prose in Taishō 310 as “At that time, the Tathāgata, who had reached the shore of perfection in all conduct, replied to the question and spoke the following verses” (爾時如來了達諸行究竟彼岸, 隨問而答即說頌曰).

n.19Taishō 310 reads that the cause for miraculous birth is generosity (Ch. 施, correlating to Skt. dāna). The line in Taishō 310 reads, “One becomes lotus-born through giving” (施蓮花化生).

n.20Śikṣ places the last two lines of verse 8 after verse 16, which also refers to the giving of Dharma.

n.21This third line of the verse is absent in Taishō 310.

n.22The last two lines of this verse read differently in Taishō 310: “Through having an attitude of equality toward all beings, one has the form that delights beings upon seeing” (等心於眾生，觀者無厭足).

n.23This fourth line of this verse is absent in Taishō 310.

n.24The fourth line of this verse in Taishō 310 reads, “when one respects all beings” (敬重於眾生).

n.25Omitted in the Sanskrit, which gives “O Great Sage” (mahāmune) in the fourth line.

n.26Tib. chos spyod ’gyur; Sanskrit: gatimān (“imbued with practices”).

n.27The Sanskrit has “O Great Sage” (mahāmune).

n.28The last two lines of Taishō 310 read, “[How can they achieve] practicing as taught in Dharma; [How can they be] solid […] and indestructible?” (如法而修行，堅固不可壞). Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 471, note c.

n.29Tib. g.yo med pa (“undeceiving”) can also be read as “unwavering”; however, the Sanskrit aśaṭhaḥ (“not being false”) and the Chinese 不諂 (“not flattering”) support the former connotation used here. The Tibetan g.yo ba med pa (=aśaṭhaḥ) is attested in Negi 1993, p. 6088.

n.30See n.­26.

n.31The Sanskrit manuscript reads paṇḍito dharmarakṣayā (“One becomes wise by safeguarding the Dharma”). Taishō 310 reads, “by protecting Dharma his mind becomes solid” (尊重所修行，護法心堅固). Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 473, note a.

n.32Reading the Sanskrit. In the Tibetan the subject is omitted.

n.33We are here following the Sanskrit manuscript and Chinese by placing this epithet for buddhas in the plural, since the Tibetan is ambiguous as to whether it is singular or plural. Although here in Siṃha’s question this might seem a bit odd, due to the cosmology that is referenced later on in the sūtra, it makes sense for Siṃha to speak about meeting with many buddhas throughout the multi-lifetime career of a bodhisattva.

n.34D: mngon sum du; Sanskrit: viśāradaḥ (“with confidence”).

n.35The last two lines of this verse read differently in Taishō 310: “As [we] come to ask for the subtle truth, may the Tathāgata tell [us about it]” (能請微妙義, 唯願如來說).

n.36This third line in Taishō 310 reads, “By doing that, he will always be able to…” (因此故恆得).

n.37Taishō 310 reads “tathāgatas” (諸如來) rather than “guardians of the world.”

n.38Sanskrit: śrāddho ’kṣaṇaṃ varjayati. Śikṣ quotes as śrāddhayā kṣaṇam akṣaṇaṃ varjayati (“Opportune and inopportune births are relinquished through faith”).

n.39Here the Sanskrit applies the adverb “always” to “becoming familiar,” which are both in the same pāda in the Sanskrit manuscript: śūnyatāṃ bhāvayen nityam.

n.40Omitted in the Sanskrit and Taishō 310.

n.41The Sanskrit has the singular bodhisattvaḥ.

n.42The last two lines of this verse in Taishō 310 read “How can he be loved by all in every lifespan?” (而於世世中，為眾之所愛). Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 477, note c.

n.43Here we are following the Sanskrit adhimokṣa (“firm resolution”), which is confirmed by Taishō 310, 勝解. The Tibetan has rnam par grol ba (“complete liberation”), which in this case would suggest the Sanskrit back-translation vimokṣa.

n.44Taishō 310 reads “he will be loved wherever he is born” (如說而修行，所生令眾愛). Vinītā (2010), vol. I,2, 473, note e.

n.45“O Sage” is absent in Taishō 310.

n.46The last two lines of this verse in Taishō 310 read, “How does one make beings / feel delighted upon seeing them?” (云何令世間，見者皆歡喜).

n.47This line in Taishō 310 reads, “The voice becomes like the song of the kalaviṅka bird through speaking gentle words” (迦陵由軟語).

n.48For this line, Taishō 310 has “One makes those who see them feel delighted” (見者皆歡喜).

n.49Here an equivalent of the Tibetan term phra ma (“slander”) is not found in the Sanskrit manuscript (which would have read as piśuna or paiśunya), though it is found in Taishō 310. See also Silk’s analysis of this section, where he offers a very different reading of the unemended manuscript: “Who separates the united pleases one of multiple inclinations.” Silk 2013, p. 78.

n.50The Sanskrit has “O Great Sage” (mahāmune).

n.51Following the Sanskrit, which gives the singular pārivara. The Tibetan has g.yog ’khor rnams (“attendants”).

n.52Rather than “by causing no harm,” Taishō 310 has “by reducing the sorrow of others” (除他憂).

n.53Here term don (Skt. arthāḥ) is translated as “wealth.”

n.54D: chags pa med pas; Sanskrit: alobhena. Taishō 310 has “being without jealousy” (Ch. 不嫉) to be the cause of obtaining wealth, although it may be implied that this is jealousy for other’s wealth, which would correlate to alobha in the Sanskrit. The Tibetan has “being without jealousy” (phrag dog med pas) as the cause for the third quality in the Buddha’s reply, for being “distinguished wherever one is born.”

n.55For the last two lines of this verse the Sanskrit reads, “Without envy, one is distinguished. Being humble, one always becomes the best” (anīrṣayā maheśatvaṃ nirmānāgragataḥ sadā ||). Taishō 310 is closer to the Sanskrit reading here: “Be humble to accomplish honor, / And one will possess might, power, and ease” (謙下成尊貴，有威德自在).

n.56Verses 27 through 30 constitute the six superknowledges (ṣaḍabhijñā), although for the third among these, which is represented in the last two lines of this verse, the Sanskrit reads differently: “How, O Guide, does one come to know / The arising thoughts of beings?” (cittotpattiṃ ca sattvānāṃ jānīte kena nāyaka). Taishō 310’s parallel verse supports the Sanskrit, although the two sets of questions appear in separate locations in the text and in the opposite order. The two older Chinese translations support the Tibetan, representing the third superknowledge as knowing the death and transmigration of beings, rather than their thoughts.

n.57Rather than “the ear is purified,” Taishō 310 reads “divine hearing is obtained” (成天耳).

n.58Here the Sanskrit reads cittotpattijñatā jñānād (“The arising thoughts of beings are known through wisdom”). Taishō 310 says this is acquired through “avoiding the two extremes” ( 捨離於二邊).

n.59This translation follows the reading in the Sanskrit witness, which gives the plural bodhisattvānām.

n.60In Taishō 310 the order of these lines is different: miraculous powers come first, followed by previous lives and then defilements.

n.61Tib. bsgom pa. While Vinītā gives the emended Sanskrit abhyāsād (“constancy”), Silk prefers the unemended manuscript reading of anāśād (“nondestruction”). Silk 2013, p. 78.

n.62The third and fourth lines of this verse read differently in Taishō 310: “How does one obtain perfect light that follows the body? The ocean of merits is to be explained” (獲隨體圓光，功德海當说).

n.63Verses 31 and 32 here appear later in the Sanskrit manuscript as Siṃha’s last question in the series, right after verse 40. The sequence of verses here follows the Tibetan translation.

n.64For this line, Taishō 310 has “The saṅgha is perfected through the power of patience” (忍力眾成就).

n.65Tib. chos; Sanskrit and Śikṣ have karman (“deed”).

n.66Tib. bsdu ba; Sanskrit: saṃgraha. Vinītā interprets this to mean one “attracts” all qualities. Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 489.

n.67The Sanskrit omits “bodhisattva.”

n.68This verse is somewhat different in the Potala Sanskrit manuscript: “Through what act / Are all the dharmas included? / O Leader, how does one become / Dear to all beings?” (saṃgrahaḥ sarvadharmāṇāṃ karmaṇā kena jāyate | priyaś ca sarvasattvānāṃ kathaṃ bhavati nāyaka ||). Note that the Sanskrit gives two questions here, while in the Tibetan there is only one. This verse is cited in Śikṣ; while the first two lines are identical to the Potala Sanskrit manuscript, the second two lines support the Tibetan: priyaś ca bhoti sattvānāṃ yatra yatropapadyate.

n.69Taishō 310 reads differently: “By having sufficient great aspiration / And by not retreating from the mind of awakening” (勝志樂具足，不退菩提心). “In order to liberate all beings” is absent.

n.70There is no parallel for verses 35 and 36 in any of the Chinese translations.

n.71This last line of the verse is absent in Taishō 310.

n.72The following two verses, 37 and 38, are quoted in Śīkṣ. The content is quite similar to the Sanskrit manuscript. However, Siṃha’s question has been changed to a statement by exchanging the interrogative (kena) for a demonstrative pronoun (tena).

n.73The first line of this verse is absent in Taishō 310.

n.74Given the omission of the first line in Taishō 310 of this verse, the fourth line differs as well: “Hopefully the Honored One will explain it” (唯願人尊說).

n.75There is a parallel of this phrase found in the Divyāvadāna, where the Buddha describes thirty-seven ways that a wise person offers gifts: “He gives a gift of the five essences, which results in his having great strength in all his lives to come.” Rotman 2017, p. 265.

n.76This line is absent in Taishō 310.

n.77This final line of the verse is absent in Taishō 310.

n.78This verse is extended by half a verse’s length in both the Tibetan and Sanskrit.

n.79Reading the Sanskrit, which gives the plural bodhisattvānām.

n.80Sanskrit has nṛpātmaja (“son of the king”), rather than siṃha .

n.81The last three lines of this verse are absent in Taishō 310.

n.82From here onward, Taishō 310 is in prose rather than verse.

n.83Sanskrit adds prāñjalir (“with hands folded in respect”).

n.84The N and H editions of the Kangyur have “steadfast conduct” (spyod pa brtan pa). The Sanskrit adds “O Sage” (mune).

n.85For the last two lines of verse 43, the Sanskrit reads “The Buddha revealed a smile illuminating numerous fields” (smitaṃ prāviṣkarod buddho ’nekakṣetrāvabhāsakam |). Taishō 310 matches the Sanskrit.

n.86Tib. thub chen; Sanskrit has the vocative “Lord” (vibho).

n.87In Taishō 310, “please explain this” is followed by “to rid us of doubts” (斷除疑惑).

n.88This verse is expanded by the two lines of verse in the Tibetan. It is of regular meter length in the Sanskrit.

n.89“Please listen to the reason / That I smiled” is absent in Taishō 310.

n.90“Previously” (purā) is taken from the Sanskrit. Taishō 310 also reflects this with 於往昔.

n.91In the Chinese version, the subject is “the prince and his five hundred friends” (此王子等五百同友).

n.92Here the Sanskrit reads this number as eighty koṭis and twelve niyutas. Taishō 310 has ten niyutas and eighty koṭis (十那由他八十億).

n.93“They made offerings to the guides of humans” is absent in Taishō 310.

n.94Tib. tshun chad du; Sanskrit has upāharya, “after having offered…” (according to Vinītā’s emendation, upahāya is found in the Sanskrit manuscript). Vinītā 2010, p. 498, n. 4.

n.95Sanskrit has mahārṣim (“great sage”).

n.96The phrase “supreme among people” is absent in the Chinese.

n.97For the last two pādas of this verse the Sanskrit reads, “I have ripened them when they showed promise of accomplishment” (paripācitā mayā caite yadā siddhipradāyakāḥ ||). Taishō 310 also includes “When I came before the Buddha Dīpaṅkara as a young brahmin I brought them to ripen” (而我往在然燈佛時。作婆羅門子成熟於彼). This addition, implying that the Buddha was there with the five hundred brahmin boys, relates to the narrative of the brahmin Megha, a previous incarnation of the Buddha Śākyamuni who made an offering to the Buddha Dīpaṅkara and received from him the prophecy that he would someday attain buddhahood as Śākyamuni. The Mahāvastu recounts this narrative while also mentioning five hundred brahmins who were fellow students of Megha, although it does not mention them going before Dīpaṅkara. See Conze 1973, pp. 20–24.

n.98This reading follows D: mdzes pa, which comes close to reflecting the Sanskrit suśobhana; K has mdzes po; Y, H, N, and S have “great” (chen po).

n.99The name of this eon varies significantly among the Chinese versions: Taishō 310 has 安樂光嚴 (“Adorned with Radiant Peace and Happiness,” Skt. Sukhaprabhāśubha), although 光嚴 may just be a description of the eon as being “splendid” (śobha), in which case the proper name would just be 安樂 “Peace and Happiness”; Taishō 343 has 摩訶波羅會, which is possibly a transliteration for “Mahābala”; and Taishō 344 has 摩訶波羅蜜, a transliteration for “Mahāpāramitā.”

n.100The Sanskrit has “the most excellent among humans” (dvipadottamāḥ). “In that single eon / They will all become guides” is absent in the Chinese.

n.101The Sanskrit places here what is verse 49 in the Tibetan, thus reading the verses in the alternate order: 49, 47, 48; and then syncing up again with the Tibetan at verse 50.

n.102The Chinese affirms that this implies they will all have the same name. This name predicted for the five hundred varies significantly among the Chinese versions: Taishō 310 has 智慧幢相 (“Wisdom Banner,” Skt. Jñānadhvaja); Taishō 343 has an unclear transliteration, 若那伎頭陀耶; and Taishō 344 has 若那頸頭陀那, possibly as transliteration for Jñānagadhutana.

n.103In Taishō 310 this passage reads differently: “All of them will always be miraculously born in the presence of Maitreya and other blessed ones in the future and sincerely make offerings to them. And thus, they will serve one billion blessed ones for three hundred eons” (彼諸人於未來世彌勒佛等諸世尊前，恆受化生親承供養，如是奉事十億如來滿三百劫). Taishō 310 then includes an additional unique passage here: “The lattermost of these buddhas will be named Boundless Wisdom, well trained in all dharmas. At that time, the Buddha Boundless Wisdom will know the hearts of all those people as desiring happiness, and so, appropriately for each, he will grant an account of their achievements of unsurpassable, truly perfect awakening” (其最後佛號無邊智善學諸法。時無邊智佛。知彼諸人心之欲樂。各隨所應。為授阿耨 多羅三藐三菩提記). This is the only mention of the Buddha Boundless Wisdom (無邊智) in the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Boundless Wisdom is predicted to be the last buddha of the far distant future that Siṃha and his five hundred companions will meet during their long careers as bodhisattvas. For this verse the Sanskrit reads, “Now and in the future, after honoring sixty koṭis of great sages, they will become guides [i.e., buddhas]” (adhunānāgate ’py ete ṣaṣṭi koṭī maharṣiṇām | maitreyādīn samabhyarcya bhaviṣyanti vināyakāḥ ||). The Tibetan gives a translation for vināyaka (rnam par dren pa) in verse 47, where the Sanskrit gives dvipadottama. See n.­100.

n.104For this verse the Sanskrit reads, “Moreover, whoever shall hear but the name of those bodhisattvas / Will have no doubts in awakening or fear of the path toward it” (ye caiṣāṃ bodhisattvānāṃ nāmaṃ śroṣyanti kevalam | na teṣāṃ saṃśayo bodher nāpi tadgatito bhayam ||). These lines are absent in Taishō 310.

n.105The Tibetan and Sanskrit here (lung bstan, vyākaraṇa) could arguably refer to either the prophecy or the teaching given previous to it. Taishō 310 describes the term as an “explanation” (所説).

n.106Here the Sanskrit describes filling one thousand buddhafields for one hundred koṭi eons.

n.107“For the purpose of awakening” is absent in the Chinese.

n.108The Sanskrit has “hearing this true Dharma one will/shall (optative) have confidence in it” (saṃśrutya saddharmaṃ śraddadhyād). Taishō 310 has “the roots of virtue that are born by hearing this Dharma presentation” (聞是經典所生善根).

n.109“And setting out for the sake of awakening” is absent in Taishō 310.

n.110For these first two lines the Sanskrit has “Eighty koṭis of beings advanced toward the highest awakening” (koṭiyāśīti sattvānām agrabodhau pratasthire). Taishō 310 matches the Sanskrit.

n.111The Sanskrit has “most excellent youths” (śreṣṭhisutaiḥ).

n.112The Sanskrit omits “in the teaching.”

n.113The Sanskrit omits “inexhaustible.”

n.114Reading the Sanskrit: sattvārthaṃ sampupūrṣanto. See Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 509, note c.

n.115Sanskrit has “through the exhibition of the Dharma of the buddhas” (buddha­dharma­nidarśanāt).

n.116There is no parallel for this last verse in the Chinese. Taishō 310 includes a unique concluding passage here that describes the rejoicing assembly and affirms that the Buddha had eliminated any of Siṃha’s doubts: “At that time the bodhisattvas, all the gods, and all those who were inspired toward the great awakening rejoiced as they saw the prince and his companions demonstrate their superpowers in accordance with the wishes of all. They said, ‘The doubts of Prince Siṃha are all expelled by the Tathāgata, the Dharma King. Thus is the inconceivability of the Blessed One. His true Dharma, his pure faith, and their fruits are inconceivable. There is no limit or end to the Tathāgata’s merits; there is no Dharma that he has not attained. He causes those who are not awakened to become awakened; his capability pervades all realms, as he has attained the complete Dharma of the three times. After hearing such a collection of merits that results in pleasure and peace, who among the wise would not have their faith and satisfaction arise and be inspired toward awakening?’ ” (爾時諸菩薩摩訶薩及諸天人， 所有趣向大菩提者， 見彼王子與諸同友隨眾所樂示現神變， 皆大歡喜. 咸作是言： 「 師子王子所問疑惑， 如來法王悉為除斷。 如是世尊不可思議， 如來正法及能信受， 乃至果報不可思議。 如來功德無量無邊， 於一切法靡不明達。 為世導師度未度者， 普能遍於十方世界， 悉已了知三世諸法。 誰有智者得聞如是 生安樂處功德之聚， 而不發起猛利信樂, 趣求菩提？ 」).

n.117The beginning of this paragraph is omitted in the Sanskrit. There, the line “eight hundred million beings set out for supreme awakening” is found in verse 54 (koṭiyāśīti sattvānām agrabodhau pratasthire).

n.118The Sanskrit continues in verse up to this point. Verse 57 in the Sanskrit corresponds to this paragraph, which is much briefer in the Sanskrit, as much of the audience is omitted: “Thus the Blessed One having spoken, Prince Siṃha was pleased. The entire world with its gods was delighted by the words of the Sage” (idaṃ hy avocad bhagavāṃs tuṣṭaḥ siṃho nṛpātmajaḥ | sarve sadevalokā hi abhyanandan muner vacaḥ ||).