The highest of the seventeen levels of the form realm (rūpadhātu). Within the form realm it is the highest of the eight pure abodes (śuddhāvāsika) of the fourth concentration (dhyāna).

A class of nonhuman beings believed to cause epilepsy, fits, and loss of memory. As their name suggests‍—the Skt. apasmāra literally means “without memory” and the Tib. brjed byed means “causing forgetfulness”‍—they are defined by the condition they cause in affected humans, and the term can refer to any nonhuman being that causes such conditions, whether a bhūta, a piśāca, or other.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

The lowest hell; the eighth and most severe of the eight hot hells.

This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.

1376–1451. Prolific scholar and abbot of the Bodong E monastery.

The visible and usually physical manifestation of fully enlightened beings which arises spontaneously from the expanse of the body of reality, whenever appropriate‌, in accordance with the diverse dispositions of sentient beings.

The luminous manifestation of the buddhas’ enlightened communication, perceptible to advanced bodhisattvas.

The ultimate nature or essence of the enlightened mind of the buddhas. It is said to be non-arising, free from the limits of conceptual elaboration, empty of inherent existence, naturally radiant, beyond duality, and spacious.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

This refers to what occurs at the end of an arhat’s or a buddha’s life. When nirvāṇa is attained at awakening, whether as an arhat or buddha, all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence have ceased, but due to previously accumulated karma, the aggregates of that life remain and must still exhaust themselves. It is only at the end of life that these cease, and since no new aggregates arise, the arhat or buddha is said to attain parinirvāṇa, meaning “complete” or “final” nirvāṇa. This is synonymous with the attainment of nirvāṇa without remainder (anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa). According to the Mahāyāna view of a single vehicle (ekayāna), the arhat’s parinirvāṇa at death, despite being so called, is not final. The arhat must still enter the bodhisattva path and reach buddhahood (see Unraveling the Intent, Toh 106, 7.14.) On the other hand, the parinirvāṇa of a buddha, ultimately speaking, should be understood as a display manifested for the benefit of beings; see The Teaching on the Extraordinary Transformation That Is the Miracle of Attaining the Buddha’s Powers (Toh 186), 1.32. The term parinirvāṇa is also associated specifically with the passing away of the Buddha Śākyamuni, in Kuśinagara, in northern India.

The community of followers of the Buddha; the third of the triad, the “Three Jewels,” in which Buddhists take refuge. In a narrower sense, it can refer to a congregation of monastics or of advanced bodhisattvas. Also translated here as “community.”

Literally, “retention,” or “that which retains, contains, or encapsulates,” the term dhāraṇī refers to mnemonic formulas, or codes possessed by advanced bodhisattvas that contain a quintessence of their attainments, as well as the Dharma teachings that express them and guide beings toward their realization. They are therefore often described in terms of “gateways” for entering the Dharma and training in its realization, or “seals” that contain condensations of truths and their expression. The term can also refer to a statement, or incantation, meant to protect or bring about a particular result.

Here referring to the dhāraṇī enshrined in a stūpa, the term is understood to refer to a condensed digest of the Buddha’s doctrine.

One of the five eyes: (1) the eye of flesh, (2) the eye of clairvoyance, (3) the eye of discernment, (4) the eye of the doctrine, and (5) the eye of the buddhas.

The two arms, two legs, and the head.

These are (1) clairvoyance (divya­cakṣurabhijñā, lha’i mig gi mngon par shes pa), (2) clairaudience (divya­śrotrābhijñā, lha’i rna ba’i mngon par shes pa), (3) knowledge of others’ minds (paracittajñāna, pha rol gyi sems shes pa’i mngon par shes pa), (4) retrocognition (pūrvanivāsānu­smṛtijñāna, sngon gyi gnas rjes su dran pa’i mngon par shes pa), and (5) knowledge of magical feats (ṛddhividhi­jñāna, rdzu ’phrul gyi bya ba shes pa’i mngon par shes pa).

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

A type of spirit that can exert a harmful influence on the human body and mind. Grahas are closely associated with the planets and other astronomical bodies.

An adjectival phrase typically linked to a brahmin, kṣatriya, or other upper-caste family, it denotes that the person in question has a large and prosperous household, family, or clan.

The word, based on the verb “to hear,” originally referred to the immediate disciples of the Buddha who heard the teachings directly from him. The term is also applied in Mahāyāna sources to followers of non-Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions.

1147–1216. Fifth throne-holder of Sakya monastery.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

An ancient Indian kingdom that lay to the south of the Ganges River in what today is the state of Bihar. Magadha was the largest of the sixteen “great states” (mahājanapada) that flourished between the sixth and third centuries ʙᴄᴇ in northern India. During the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it was ruled by King Bimbisāra and later by Bimbisāra's son, Ajātaśatru. Its capital was initially Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir) but was later moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern-day Patna). Over the centuries, with the expansion of the Magadha’s might, it became the capital of the vast Mauryan empire and seat of the great King Aśoka.This region is home to many of the most important Buddhist sites, including Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained awakening; Vulture Peak (Gṛdhra­kūṭa), where the Buddha bestowed many well-known Mahāyāna sūtras; and the Buddhist university of Nālandā that flourished between the fifth and twelfth centuries ᴄᴇ, among many others.

An epithet of the Brahmanical god Śiva.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

Another name of the Brahmanical god Viṣṇu.

The Sanskrit term signifies the extinction of the causes of suffering, whereas the Tibetan term emphasizes the fact that suffering has been transcended. Three types of nirvāṇa are identified: (1) the residual nirvāṇa where the person is still dependent on conditioned psycho-physical aggregates, (2) the non-residual nirvāṇa where the aggregates have also been consumed within emptiness, and (3) the non-abiding nirvāṇa transcending the extremes of phenomenal existence and quiescence.

The third of four levels of noble ones attainable on the path of the hearers. Beings on this level will no longer be reborn in the desire realm but rather in the pure abodes (śuddhāvāsika), where they will attain liberation.

The second of four levels of noble ones attainable on the path of the hearers. Beings on this level will be reborn no more than once.

A collective term for the ten virtues, i.e., refraining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct (with the body); lying, slander, harsh words, gossip (with speech); covetousness, malice, and wrong views (with the mind).

A class of nonhuman beings that, like several other classes of nonhuman beings, take spontaneous birth. Ranking below rākṣasas, they are less powerful and more akin to pretas. They are said to dwell in impure and perilous places, where they feed on impure things, including flesh. This could account for the name piśāca, which possibly derives from √piś, to carve or chop meat, as reflected also in the Tibetan sha za, “meat eater.” They are often described as having an unpleasant appearance, and at times they appear with animal bodies. Some possess the ability to enter the dead bodies of humans, thereby becoming so-called vetāla, to touch whom is fatal.

The park in which the old stūpa is located in The Dhāraṇī for Secret Relics.

A type of spirit known for being tormented by unceasing hunger and thirst. The Sanskrit term generally refers to the spirits of the dead, but in Buddhism specifically it refers to a class of sentient beings belonging to the lower states of rebirth.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A basket, box, or other kind of receptacle with a lid.

The physical remains or personal objects of a previous tathāgata, arhat, or other realized person that are venerated for their perpetual spiritual potency. They are often enshrined in stūpas and other public monuments so that the Buddhist community at large can benefit from their blessings and power.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

A polysemous term that indicates a “seal” in both the literal and metaphoric sense. It can refer to an emblem or symbol, a ritual hand gesture, or a consort in sexual practices. When paired with the term dhāraṇī it conveys the idea that a dhāraṇī seals or stamps the nature that it embodies upon the reciter or the targeted phenomenon.

The set of seven precious materials or substances includes a range of precious metals and gems, but their exact list varies. The set often consists of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, red pearls, emeralds, and white coral, but may also contain lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, diamonds, etc. The term is frequently used in the sūtras to exemplify preciousness, wealth, and beauty, and can describe treasures, offering materials, or the features of architectural structures such as stūpas, palaces, thrones, etc. The set is also used to describe the beauty and prosperity of buddha realms and the realms of the gods.In other contexts, the term saptaratna can also refer to the seven precious possessions of a cakravartin or to a set of seven precious moral qualities.

The six perfections are generosity, discipline, patience, diligence, concentration, and discernment.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

While this is usually a term pertaining to the brahmin, kṣatriya, or other “upper castes,” the Buddha redefined noble birth as determined by an individual’s ethical conduct and integrity. Thus, someone who enters the Buddha’s Saṅgha is called a “son or daughter of noble family.”

A brahmin layman who is the main interlocutor in The Dhāraṇī for Secret Relics.

The location of the Buddha’s discourse in The Dhāraṇī for Secret Relics.

The first of four levels of noble ones attainable on the path of the hearers. Beings on this level have entered the “stream” of practice that will inexorably lead to nirvāṇa.

A sacred object representative of the mind of a buddha and the body of reality (dharmakāya), originally constructed to hold the mortal remains of Śākyamuni Buddha. The symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies considerably throughout the Buddhist world.

The secondary afflictive emotions that arise in dependence upon the six root afflictions (attachment, hatred, pride, ignorance, doubt, and wrong view); they are (1) anger (krodha, khro ba), (2) resentment (upanāha, ’khon ’dzin), (3) concealment [of faults] (mrakṣa, ’chab pa), (4) irritation (pradāśa, ’tshig pa), (5) jealousy (īrśyā, phrag dog), (6) avarice (matsara, ser sna), (7) craftiness (māyā, sgyu), (8) fickleness (śāṭhya, g.yo), (9) pompousness (mada, rgyags pa), (10) harmfulness (vihiṃsā, rnam par ’tshe ba), (11) shamelessness (āhrīkya, ngo tsha med pa), (12) non-embarrassment (anapatrāpya, khrel med pa), (13) lack of faith (aśraddhya, ma dad pa), (14) laziness (kausīdya, le lo), (15) carelessness (pramāda, bag med pa), (16) forgetfulness (muṣitasmṛtitā, brjed ngas), (17) inattentiveness (asaṃprajanya, shes bzhin ma yin pa), (18) dullness (nimagna, bying ba), (19) agitation (auddhatya, rgod pa), and (20) distraction (vikṣepa, rnam g.yeng).

The three bodies or dimensions of a buddha’s enlightenment.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Tibetan translator active in the early ninth century who translated The Dhāraṇī for Secret Relics.

One of the thirty-two signs of a great being. In its simplest form, it is a pointed shape on the head (like a turban). More elaborately, a dome-shaped protuberance, or even an invisible protuberance of infinite height.

Here used as an epithet of Vajrapāṇi.

A figure who takes on numerous personas in Buddhist literature, including as a yakṣa bodyguard of Śākyamuni, a bodhisattva, and an esoteric Buddhist deity involved in the transmission of tantric scripture.

Indian paṇḍita active in the early ninth century who translated The Dhāraṇī for Secret Relics.

The fourth of four levels of noble ones attainable on the path of the hearers. Beings on this level have eliminated all the afflictions and personally ended rebirth in cyclic existence.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.