A traditional Indian title denoting a person who has authority because of superior knowledge, spiritual training, or position. In the Buddhist context, it is most often used for a scholar of great renown.

The bodhisattvas’ realization that all phenomena are unproduced and empty. It sustains them on the difficult path of benefiting all beings so that they do not succumb to the goal of personal liberation. Different sources link this realization to the first or eighth bodhisattva level (bhūmi).

The highest paradise in the form realm, and therefore the highest point within the universe. The name is used with other meanings in the tantra tradition.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The nectar of immortality possessed by the devas, it is used as a metaphor for the teaching that brings liberation.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A vast legendary lake on the other side of the Himalayas. Only those with miraculous powers can go there. It is said to be the source of the world’s four great rivers.

In Sanskrit meaning “venerable one,” in Tibetan “enemy defeater.” Used as both as an epithet of the buddhas and to refer to the final accomplishment of early Buddhism.

Literally an “incalculable eon,” though precise numbers are given for its duration. The Abhidharmakośa states that its name does not mean that it is in fact incalculable. The number of years in this eon differs in various sūtras. For example, it is said to be 10 to the power of 49, or 10 to the power of 63 years. Also, twenty intermediate eons (antarakalpa) are said to be one asaṃkhyeya eon, and four asaṃkhyeya eons are said to form one great eon (mahākalpa). In that case those four asaṃkhyeya eons represent the eons of the creation, presence, destruction, and absence of a world. However, it is also used, as apparently in this sūtra, to refer to the longest of all eons, including all others.

Fourth-century Indian founder of the Yogācāra tradition.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

The fifth of the golden mountain ranges (counting from the innermost) that encircle Sumeru.

The lowest hell, the eighth of the eight hot hells.

Here refers to both the four formless meditations (see “liberation”) and the sensory bases.

Four qualities of the samādhi that has the activity of eliminating negative factors: aspiration, diligence, contemplation, and analysis.

Although it has often been translated as lapis lazuli, the descriptions and references in the literature, both Sanskrit and Tibetan, match the characteristics of beryl. The Pāli form is veḷuriya. The Prākrit form verulia is the source for the English beryl. This normally refers to the blue or aquamarine beryl, but there are also white, yellow, and green beryls, though green beryl is called emerald.

Literally “one who has bhaga,” which has many diverse meanings including “good fortune,” “happiness,” and “majesty.” In the Buddhist context, it means “one who has the good fortune of attaining enlightenment.” The Tibetan translation has three syllables defined to mean “one who has conquered (the māras), possesses (the qualities of enlightenment), and has transcended (saṃsāra, or both saṃsāra and nirvāṇa).”

The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).

Literally the “grounds” in which qualities grow, and also meaning “levels.” Here it refers specifically to levels of enlightenment, especially the ten levels of the enlightened bodhisattvas.

The tree beneath which every buddha in this world will manifest the attainment of buddhahood.

The aspiration to become a samyak­sambuddha, a buddha who liberates other beings.

The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.

A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.

This is the way ( yāna ) of the bodhisattva, the teachings of the Mahāyāna sūtras.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

A member of the priestly class or caste from the four social divisions of India.

The fourth bodhisattva bhūmi.

Literally “buddha body,” it is another term for the state of buddhahood, which can be subdivided into two or three bodies (kāya).

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

“Circular mass.” In this sūtra it is the name of the outer ring of mountains at the edge of the flat disk that is the world, with Sumeru in the center. However, it is also used to mean the entire disk and the paradises above it. There is also a system where it is the eighth mountain range encircling Sumeru within the ocean.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The paradise of the Four Mahā­rājas situated around the base of Sumeru.

There are usually five or six clairvoyances: divine sight, divine hearing, knowing how to manifest miracles, remembering previous lives, and knowing what is in the minds of others; the sixth, knowing that all defects have been eliminated, occurs only at the attainment of enlightenment.

The tenth bodhisattva bhūmi.

This patience is an acceptance of the true nature of things. It is a patience that is in concord with the nature of phenomena.

This refers to the four confidences or fearlessnesses (as translated into Tibetan) of a buddha: confidence in having attained realization, confidence in having exhausted defilements, confidence in teaching the Dharma, and confidence in teaching the path of aspiration to liberation.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

Approximately ten ounces. One dharaṇa could be equivalent to between 3 and 5 grams, which could be from 50 to 70 grains, but that seems too small in relation to its usage in this sūtra. In one example of measurement used specifically for gold, a dharaṇa is equivalent to ten pala, or 40 suverna, or 640 māśa, or 3200 kṛṣṇala (black gañja seed), in which case the dharaṇa would be even smaller, equivalent to 1.5 grains. As there was no equivalent to dharaṇa in Tibetan, it was translated as srang, which in the Mahāvyutpatti is said to equal one pala, both being close to an ounce when used generally.

Dhāraṇī is translated as “retention” when it means the power of mental retention. The Sanskrit is given when it refers to a formula to be recited that is said to contain the essence of a teaching.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

In early Buddhism, a section of the saṅgha would be bhāṇakas, who, particularly before the teachings were written down, when they were solely transmitted orally, were the key factor in the preservation of the teachings. Various groups of bhāṇakas each specialized in memorizing and reciting a certain set of sūtras or vinaya texts.

In its earliest use it meant that though the corporeal body of the Buddha had perished, his “body of the Dharma” continued. It later came to be synonymous with enlightenment or buddhahood, a “body” that can only be “seen” by a buddha.

Generally one of the synonyms for meditation, referring to a state of mental stability. Specifically, as in this sūtra, it refers to the four dhyānas, which are responsible for rebirth in the four levels‍—composed of seventeen paradises‍—of the form realm, and the four dhyānas that bring rebirth in the four levels of the formless realm, which, though called a “realm,” has no cosmological location.

The fifth bodhisattva bhūmi.

These are of four kinds and are also found in the Pali tradition and in the Mahāvastu of the Mahāsaṅghikas. They are listed in this sūtra as the discerning knowledge of phenomena, the discerning knowledge of meaning, the discerning knowledge of definitions, and the discerning knowledge of eloquence.

There are three doors to liberation: emptiness, featurelessness, and aspirationlessness.

This is the opposite of the noble eightfold path and so consists in wrong view, examination, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and samādhi.

See “realm of phenomena.”

One of the qualities necessary as a method to attain the enlightenment of a śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, or buddha. There are thirty-seven of these, consisting of (1–4) mindfulness of body, sensations, mind, and phenomena; (5–8) the intention to not do bad actions that have not been done, to give up bad actions that are being done, to do good actions that have not been done, and to increase the good actions that are being done; (9–12) the foundations for miraculous powers: intention, diligence, mind, and analysis; (13–17) the five powers: faith, diligence, mindfulness samādhi, and wisdom; (18–22) the five strengths: faith, diligence, mindfulness, samādhi, and wisdom; (23–29) the seven aspects of enlightenment: correct mindfulness, correct analysis of phenomena, correct diligence, correct attentiveness, correct samādhi, and correct equanimity; (30–37) and the noble eightfold path: right view, examination, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and samādhi.

These five are killing one’s father, killing one’s mother, killing an arhat, wounding a buddha, and splitting a buddha’s saṅgha. They are literally called “without an interval” because they result in instantaneous rebirth in hell at the moment of death without passing through an intermediate state.

The powers of faith, diligence, mindfulness, samādhi, and wisdom at their highest level. Included among the thirty-seven factors for enlightenment.

The meaning of this term varies according to context. As one of the skandhas, it refers to various mental activities. In terms of the twelve phases of dependent origination, it is the second, “formation” or “creation,” referring to activities with karmic results.

See “four formless states.”

Four types of right effort consisting in (1) abandoning existing negative mind states, (2) abandoning the production of such states, (3) giving rise to virtuous mind states that are not yet produced, and (4) letting those states continue.

These comprise (1) the meditation of infinite space, (2) the meditation of infinite consciousness, (3) the meditation of nothingness, and (4) the meditation of neither perception nor nonperception.

The four “main” or “great” outer elements of earth, water, fire, and air.

Generosity, kind words, actions that benefit others, and practicing what one preaches.

Taking what is impermanent to be permanent, what is painful to be delightful, what is unclean to be clean, and what is no self to be a self.

Walking, standing, sitting, and lying down.

The first teaching of the Buddha covering suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A legendary mountain north of the Himalayas, with Lake Anavatapta, the source of the world’s great rivers, at its base. It is said to be south of Mount Kailash, though both have been identified with Mount Tise in west Tibet.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The seventh bodhisattva bhūmi.

Iron sulfate or ferrous sulphate, also known in the past as copperas. A blue-green powder that has had many uses including being used in the process of refining gold through solutions of gold and green vitriol.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

An alternative name for the Himalayas.

Literally ten times ten million, a koṭi being equivalent to ten million.

The four meditations on love (maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekṣā), as well as the states of mind and qualities of being that result from their cultivation. They are also called the four abodes of Brahmā (caturbrahmavihāra). In the Abhidharmakośa, Vasubandhu explains that they are called apramāṇa‍—meaning “infinite” or “limitless”‍—because they take limitless sentient beings as their object, and they generate limitless merit and results. Love is described as the wish that beings be happy, and it acts as an antidote to malice (vyāpāda). Compassion is described as the wish for beings to be free of suffering, and acts as an antidote to harmfulness (vihiṃsā). Joy refers to rejoicing in the happiness beings already have, and it acts as an antidote to dislike or aversion (arati) toward others’ success. Equanimity is considering all beings impartially, without distinctions, and it is the antidote to attachment to both pleasure and malice (kāmarāgavyāpāda).

See “Śakra.”

The rivers that flow down from the immense lake at the foot of the legendary Jambu tree, including the Ganges. The fruits of that tree are golden and are carried down by the rivers through Jambudvīpa.

An alternative name for Jambudvīpa meaning “rose-apple banner.”

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

One of the synonyms for a buddha. It literally means “victor” but is only used for founders of religious traditions.

Jinamitra was invited to Tibet during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (r. 742–98 ᴄᴇ) and was involved with the translation of nearly two hundred texts, continuing into the reign of King Ralpachen (r. 815–38 ᴄᴇ). He was among the small group of paṇḍitas responsible for the Mahā­vyutpatti Sanskrit–Tibetan dictionary.

“Son of the Jina.” While it is a synonym for bodhisattva , jinaputra is used more frequently in this sūtra.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The Sanskrit is literally “beneficial friend,” the Tibetan “friend of virtue.” A title for a teacher of the spiritual path.

Paltsek (eighth to early ninth century), from the village of Kawa north of Lhasa, was one of Tibet’s preeminent translators. He was one of the first seven Tibetans to be ordained by Śāntarakṣita and is counted as one of Guru Rinpoché’s twenty-five close disciples. In a famous verse by Ngok Lotsawa Loden Sherab, Kawa Paltsek is named along with Chokro Lui Gyaltsen and Zhang (or Nanam) Yeshé Dé as part of a group of translators whose skills were surpassed only by Vairotsana.He translated works from a wide variety of genres, including sūtra, śāstra, vinaya, and tantra, and was an author himself. Paltsek was also one of the most important editors of the early period, one of nine translators installed by Tri Songdetsen (r. 755–797/800) to supervise the translation of the Tripiṭaka and help catalog translated works for the first two of three imperial catalogs, the Denkarma (ldan kar ma) and the Samyé Chimpuma (bsam yas mchims phu ma). In the colophons of his works, he is often known as Paltsek Rakṣita (rak+Shi ta).

An unidentified mountain only mentioned in this sūtra. Possibly an alternative name for one of the seven golden mountain ranges encircling Sumeru.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

Literally “pain,” “torment,” or “affliction.” In Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit it literally means “impurity” or “depravity.” In its technical use in Buddhism it refers to any negative quality in the mind, which causes continued existence in saṃsāra. The basic three kleśas are ignorance, attachment, and aversion.

The ruling caste in the traditional four-caste hierarchy of India, associated with warriors, the aristocracy, and kings.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

Distinctive Indian assembly hall or temple with one ground-floor room and a high ornamental roof, either a barrel shape with apses or, more usually, a tapering roof as a tower dome or spire, containing at least one additional upper room within the structure. Kūṭāgāra literally means “upper chamber” and is short for kūṭāgāraśala (“hall with an upper chamber or chambers”). The Mahābodhi Temple in Bodhgaya is an example of a kūṭāgāra.

In certain contexts this is a term for a method for attaining liberation. There is a traditional list of eight: liberation through (1) seeing that which has form as form (perceiving dependent origination, etc.), (2) seeing the formless as form (perceiving emptiness, etc., as dependent origination), (3) beauty (perceiving emptiness as beautiful), (4) the formless meditation of infinite space, (5) the formless meditation of infinite consciousness, (6) the formless meditation of nothingness, (7) the formless meditation of neither perception nor nonperception, and (8) cessation.

“Guardians of the world.” Also called “guardians of the directions” (digpāla; phyogs skyong), which are specifically listed to be Śakra (Indra, lord of the devas, for the east), Yama (lord of the dead, for the south), Varuṇa (lord of water for the west), Kubera (Vaiśravaṇa, lord of yakṣas, for the north), Agni (lord of fire, for the southeast), Vāyu (lord of air, for the northwest), Īśāna (Śiva, for the northeast), Nairṛta (Rākṣasa, lord of the rākṣasas, for the southwest), Brahmā (lord of the universe, for above), and Pṛthvī (or Pṛthivī, goddess of the earth, for below).

Four deities at the base of Sumeru, each one the guardian of his direction: Vaiśravaṇa in the north, Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east, Virūpākṣa in the west, and Virūḍhaka in the south.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

“Great being.” An epithet for an accomplished bodhisattva.

A bhikṣu in an analogy given by the bodhisattva Vajra­garbha.

One of the most frequently used names for Śiva.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

Important author of the third to fourth century who was a precursor of the Yogācāra tradition. Even though his name means “One Whose Lord Is Maitreya,” he has been identified with the bodhisattva Maitreya himself.

The sixth bodhisattva bhūmi.

A translator of canonical texts.

The deities ruled over by Māra , they are also symbolic of the defects within a person that prevent awakening. These four personifications are (1) devaputramāra (lha’i bu’i bdud), the divine māra, which is the distraction of pleasures, (2) mṛtyumāra (’chi bdag gi bdud), the māra of the Lord of Death, (3) skandhamāra (phung po’i bdud), the māra of the aggregates, i.e., the body, and (4) kleśamāra (nyon mongs pa’i bdud), the māra of the afflictive emotions.

The name of the demon who assailed Śākyamuni prior to his awakening, a generic name for the deities in Māra’s realm, and an impersonal term for the factors that keep beings in saṃsāra. Although Māra is said to be the principal deity in Para­nirmita­vaśa­vartin , the highest paradise in the desire realm, in this sūtra they are different deities.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

Another name, given in verse, of Vimukti­candra, the interlocutor in The Ten Bhūmis.

An ancient title given to ascetics, monks, hermits, and saints, namely, those who have attained the realization of a truth through their own contemplation and not by divine revelation. Here also used as a specific epithet of the buddhas.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A name for the embryonic phase of an individual’s existence where there is form but the rest of the skandhas, or aggregates, which are mental, are undeveloped and have only a nominal presence.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The seventh of the golden mountain ranges encircling Mount Sumeru in the center of the world.

The second highest paradise in the desire realm, the name means “delight in emanations.”

In Sanskrit means that the causes for saṃsāra are “extinguished”; in Tibetan it means that suffering has been transcended.

Right view, examination, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and samādhi. These eight are included in the thirty-seven factors for enlightenment.

See “noble path.”

See “four truths.”

The third of the four stages that culminate in becoming an arhat. At this stage, a being will not be reborn in the desire realm but in the Śuddhāvāsa paradises, where they will remain until liberation.

Second of the four stages that culminate in becoming an arhat. At this stage, a being will only be reborn once again in the realm of desire.

A term for the mind’s propensity to be diffused outward and to engage in saṃsāric phenomena.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The way of the perfections. Synonymous with Bodhisattva­yāna.

The principal deity in the paradise of the same name, which is the highest in the desire realm. Also called Vaśavartin.

The highest paradise in the desire realm, named “power over the emanations of others” because its inhabitants have that power.

The first bodhisattva bhūmi.

The ninth bodhisattva bhūmi.

The trainings of the bodhisattva path. The Perfection of Wisdom sūtras, which were composed earlier than The Ten Bhūmis, teach just six perfections: generosity, correct conduct, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. The Ten Bhūmis, however, in accord with A Multitude of Buddhas’ emphasis on groups of ten, and in correlation with the ten bhūmis, contains the first appearance in Mahāyāna texts of the ten perfections, adding the four perfections of skillful method, prayer, strength, and knowledge.

See “five powers.”

An Indian Bengali paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. Arriving in Tibet on an invitation from the Tibetan king, he assisted in the translation of numerous canonical scriptures. He is also the author of a few philosophical commentaries contained in the Tibetan Tengyur (bstan ’gyur) collection.

“Solitary buddha.” Someone who has attained liberation entirely through their own contemplation, hence their alternate epithet, pratyayajina, which means “one who has become a jina, or buddha, through dependence [on external factors that were contemplated].” This is the result of progress in previous lives, but unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary accumulation of merit or the motivation to teach others.

The way of the pratyekabuddha, particularly characterized by contemplation on the twelve phases of dependent origination.

In India, a person’s particular preceptor within the monastic tradition, guiding that person for the taking of full vows and the maintenance of conduct and practice. The Tibetan translation mkhan po has also come to mean “a learned scholar,” the equivalent of a paṇḍita, but that is not the intended meaning in Indic Buddhist literature.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

The thirty-two primary and eighty secondary physical characteristics of a “great being,” a mahāpuruṣa, which every buddha has.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

Quintillion (a million million million) is here derived from the classical meaning of nayuta as “a million.” The Tibetan gives nayuta a value of a hundred thousand million, so that the entire number would mean a hundred thousand quintillion.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

The Tibetan king who reigned from 815–38 ᴄᴇ.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

This realm is composed of the six classes of existence: hell beings, pretas, animals, humans, asuras, and devas. These are all existences where a being is reborn through karma. In the two higher realms beings are reborn there through the power of their meditation.

Defined in the commentary as the ultimate nature of phenomena, or as the supreme amongst phenomena. Also defined as the essence of the Dharma. Dhātu can be used to mean an essential element or a realm, and so dharmadhātu is also used to mean “the realm of phenomena,” meaning all phenomena. Also translated here as “essence of phenomena.”

Dhāraṇī is translated as “retention” when it means the power of mental retention. The Sanskrit is given when it refers to a formula to be recited that is said to contain the essence of a teaching.

The name of this unidentified legendary mountain may be inspired by Ṛṣigiri Mountain near Rājgir.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

“Form body.” The visible form of a buddha that is perceived by other beings.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

Also known as Indra, he is the deity who is called “lord of the devas” and dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru, wielding the vajra. The Tibetan translation is based on the etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu (“one who has performed a hundred sacrifices”). The highest Vedic sacrifice was the horse sacrifice, and there is a tradition that he became the lord of the gods through performing them. In this sūtra there are numerous Śakras in various worlds.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

One of the synonyms for the meditative state. The Tibetan translation interpreted it as sama-āpatti, which brings in the idea of being “equal” or “level,” whereas it may very well be, like “samādhi,” sam-āpatti, with the similar meaning of concentration, but also of completion.

The Sanskrit means “continuation,” and the Tibetan means “cycle,” both referring to an unending series of unenlightened existences.

The principal deity in the paradise of Tuṣita.

A perfect buddha: a buddha who teaches the Dharma and brings it into a world, as opposed to a pratyekabuddha, who does not teach the Dharma or bring it into a world.

The first monastery established in Tibet, built between 775 and 779 ᴄᴇ. It was the location of the decades-long program of translating Buddhist texts.

Though often specifically reserved for the monastic community, this term can be applied to any of the four Buddhist communities‍—monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen‍—as well as to identify the different groups of practitioners, like the community of bodhisattvas or the community of śrāvakas. It is also the third of the Three Jewels (triratna) of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Community.

“The King of All Clairvoyant Knowledge.” A buddha seen by the assembly of bodhisattvas when they are inside bodhisattva Vajra­garbha’s body. He does not appear anywhere else in the Kangyur .

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The six bases of sensory perception are the six sensory faculties: the eyes, nose, ear, tongue, body, and mind, which form in the womb but as yet have no contact with the external six bases of sensory perception: form, smell, sound, taste, touch, and phenomena. In another context in this sūtra, āyatana refers to the four formless meditations (see “ liberations ”).

The six sensory objects, six sensory faculties, and six consciousnesses.

The seven possessions of a cakravartin king: the precious wheel, jewel, queen, minister, elephant, horse, and general.

The third bodhisattva bhūmi

Literally “heaps” or “aggregates.” These are the five aggregates of forms, sensations, identifications, formations, and consciousnesses.

See “sugataputra.”

Specifically non-Vedic ascetics; śramaṇa ascetics are typically contrasted with brahmin householders.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

The vehicle comprising the teaching of the śrāvakas.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The second bodhisattva bhūmi.

The first of the four levels of attainment on the śrāvaka path. The one who attains it continuously approaches liberation from then onward.

The five strengths, which are included among to thirty-seven factors for enlightenment, are faith, diligence, mindfulness, samādhi, and wisdom. Also, there are the ten “strengths” of a Buddha: knowledge of (1) what is possible and impossible, (2) the ripening of karma, (3) the variety of aspirations, (4) the variety of different natures, (5) the levels of capabilities, (6) the various kinds of good and bad paths, (7) the different states of meditation, (8) past lives, (9) death and rebirth, and (10) the cessation of the impure.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

These are composed of the five highest paradises in the form realm: Akaniṣṭha, Sudarśana, Sudṛśa, Atapa, and Avṛha.

The laborer caste in the fourfold division of the society.

“One who fares well” or “one who is free from care.” Sometimes interpreted as “one gone to bliss.” The su or bde bar is adverbial, and gata, a past passive participle, denotes a state of being rather than literal motion and refers to a present state rather than a past one.

“Son of the sugatas.” A synonym for bodhisattva .

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

The principal deity in the Nirmāṇarati paradise, the second highest paradise in the desire realm.

Surendrabodhi came to Tibet during reign of King Ralpachen (r. 815–38 ᴄᴇ). He is listed as the translator of forty-three texts and was one of the small group of paṇḍitas responsible for the Mahāvyutpatti Sanskrit–Tibetan dictionary.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

Literally “thread,” and generally used for pithy statements, rules, and aphorisms, on which are strung a commentary. Within Buddhism it refers generally to the Buddha’s nontantric teachings. In terms of the subdivisions into twelve aspects of the Dharma, it means the teachings given in prose.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The principal deity in the Yāma paradise, the third of the six paradises in the desire realm.

One of the titles of a buddha. Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. As the Buddha’s state is indescribable, he is said to have “become thus.”

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

Killing, taking what is not given, practicing sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, idle talk, covetousness, malice, and false view.

Not engaging in the ten bad actions: killing, taking what is not given, practicing sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, idle talk, covetousness, malice, and false view.

The Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha.

The suffering experienced as actual pain, the suffering of change, and potential suffering.

The past, present, and future.

Though the precise reference is unclear from the context, in an Indian Mahāyāna sūtra such as The Ten Bhūmis, the term trisaṃvara does not refer to the triad of prātimokṣa vows, bodhisattva commitments, and tantric pledges, but rather may refer to a set known from the Bodhisattvabhūmi: prātimokṣa discipline, engaging in virtuous acts, and providing assistance and care to all beings.

A member of a religion, sect, or philosophical tradition that was a rival of or antagonistic to the Buddhist community in India.

The paradise on the summit of Sumeru.

Literally “a hundred thousand ten-millions,” which adds up to a million million, which is a trillion.

King of Tibet (r. 742–98 ᴄᴇ) under whose auspices the first Buddhist monastery was established and a decades-long program of the translation of Buddhist texts commenced.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

A term used and translated variously in Indian and Buddhist literature. Closely related to being free of conceptualization, it refers here to the simple nature of phenomena, their emptiness without the conceptualization of the mind that is imposed upon them.

The eighth bodhisattva bhūmi.

A single coil of white hair located between the eyebrows of a buddha, it is one of the thirty-two primary signs of a buddha.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The name of this unidentified legendary mountain may be inspired by Vipula Mountain by Rājgir.

“The Illuminator” is in this sūtra an epithet for the Buddha Śākyamuni, who appears in millions of places simultaneously. This is also the name of the principal buddha in the Caryā and Yoga tantras.

The merchant caste in the fourfold division of the society.

The word vajra refers to the “thunderbolt,” the indestructible and irresistible weapon that first appears in Indian literature in the hand of the Vedic deity Indra. According to context it may also mean “diamond.”

The name of countless buddhas, each in a realm named Vajraśrī, from which countless bodhisattvas come at the conclusion of the sūtra.

The bodhisattva who gives all the teachings of The Ten Bhūmis while in the Para­nirmita­vaśa­vartin paradise in the presence of a silent emanation of the Buddha Śākyamuni who has just attained buddhahood in Jambudvīpa. A bodhisattva of that name appears in passing in a few other sūtras and is the name of the principal interlocutor for the Hevajra Tantra, and the commentary to that tantra is also attributed to him.

A buddha in an analogy given by the bodhisattva Vajra­garbha.

He first appears in Buddhist literature as the yakṣa bodyguard of the Buddha, ready at times to shatter a person’s head into a hundred pieces with his vajra if they speak inappropriately to the Buddha. His name means that he wields a vajra. His identity as a bodhisattva did not take place until the rise of the Mantrayāna.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The name of countless realms in the ten directions, in each of which is a buddha named Vajradhvaja.

The principal deity in the Para­nirmita­vaśa­vartin paradise, the highest paradise in the desire realm. The deity himself is also called Para­nirmita­vaśa­vartin.

A great fourth-century scholar and author, half-brother and pupil of Asaṅga and an important author of the Yogācāra tradition.

A class of powerful beings that typically haunt charnel grounds and are most often depicted entering into and animating corpses. Hence, the Tibetan translation means “risen corpse.”

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva.

The interlocutor for Vajra­garbha in The Ten Bhumis. He appears in passing in a few other sūtras, but not in any tantras. On two occasions in verse he is referred to as Mokṣa­candra.

In other translations, this is translated into Tibetan as spug. White coral is fossilized coral that has undergone transformation under millions of years of underwater pressure. Tibetan tradition describes it being formed from ice over a long period of time. It can also refer to tridacna (Tridacnidae) shell, which is also presently referred to by the name musaragalva. Attempts to identify musalagalva have included sapphire, cat’s eye, red coral, conch, and amber. It appears in one version of the list of seven jewels or treasures.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

The lord of death, he judges the dead and rules over the underworld inhabited by the pretas.

The third (counting from the lowest) of the six paradises in the desire realm.

The land of the dead ruled over by Yama, the Lord of Death. In Buddhism “the departed,” the pretas, are generally suffering hunger and thirst, as in traditional brahmanism is the fate of those without descendants to make ancestral offerings.

Literally “vehicle” or “way of going,” the three yānas referred to here are the Śrāvaka­yāna, Pratyekabuddha­yāna, and Bodhisattva­yāna.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

The innermost of the seven golden mountain ranges that encircle Sumeru, in the center of the disk of the world. It is presented differently in other systems; for example, it is sometimes the fourth of these mountains.