Any act or deed done with body, speech, or mind. Also translated here as “the potential of their past actions.”

The son of Bimbisāra, ruler of Magadha at the time of the Buddha, who committed patricide, usurped his father’s throne, and conspired with Devadatta to take over the saṅgha. He later repented and became a lay disciple of the Buddha.

One of the three lower realms of existence (Skt. durgati, apāya). Unlike the Western biological classification of life (in which humans belong to the animal kingdom), Buddhism in ancient Asia has developed its own unique taxonomic system that divides all forms of sentient life (plants are mostly excluded from sentient life in the South Asian and Tibetan Buddhist taxonomies) into six (sometimes five) realms or rebirth destinies (Skt. gati): gods (Skt. deva ), demigods (Skt. asura ), humans (Skt. manuṣya), animals (Skt. tiryak), hell (Skt. naraka), and ghosts (Skt. preta).

There are four kinds of noble persons (Skt. āryapudgala) according to the Śrāvakayāna path, characterized by a gradual abandonment of ten kinds of fetters (Skt. saṃyojana) that bind one to saṃsāra. This is the fourth and final of the four (or eight) stages of the realization of the supermundane path (and fruit), equivalent with awakening or liberation.

A general term applied to spiritual practitioners who live as ascetic mendicants. In Buddhist texts, the term usually refers to Buddhist monastics, but it can also designate a practitioner from other ascetic/monastic spiritual traditions. In this context śramaṇa is often contrasted with the term brāhmaṇa (bram ze), which refers broadly to followers of the Vedic tradition. Any renunciate, not just a Buddhist, could be referred to as a śramaṇa if they were not within the Vedic fold. The epithet Great Śramaṇa is often applied to the Buddha.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).See also “animal.”

Also translated here as “ignorant of the Dharma.”

Four (supernatural) qualities or powers of the mind that help to gain the fruit of the path: aspiration, effort, concentration, and analysis. In contrast to what the name suggests, the actual supernatural powers‍—like the ability to walk on water, dive into the earth, pass through solid objects, flying, etc.‍— are usually considered byproducts and even distractions from attaining the fruit of the path: liberation.

A common epithet of the historical Buddha. The Sanskrit word bhaga means, among other factors, good fortune, happiness, prosperity, and excellence. The suffix -vat indicates possession. A common English translation is thus “the Blessed One” or “the Fortunate One.” The three syllables of the Tibetan translation mean that the Buddha has “overcome, conquered” (Tib. bcom), is “endowed with (qualities)” (Tib. ldan), and has “gone beyond (saṃsāra)” (Tib. ’das).

See “young brahmin.”

The Sanskrit word caitya can refer to a stūpa , but also to a shrine (containing an image or a stūpa), a sacred place of worship, or any sacred object.

The literal translation of Tibetan mi ’jigs pa (Skt. vaiśāradya) is “fearlessness.” Usually four kinds of confidence or fearlessness are enumerated when describing a buddha: a fully enlightened buddha is confident of having (1) attained complete, perfect enlightenment regarding all phenomena, (2) eliminated all contaminants, (3) correctly declared all obstacles to enlightenment, and (4) shown the path that actually leads to the liberation from obstacles and suffering. This sūtra, on the other hand, talks about confidence regarding the daily routines of monks and nuns and their deportment. They have confidence in their ability to faultlessly adhere to the monastic discipline in all situations because it provides a sense of protection.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

Term for a deva belonging to the realm of form, which is the second of the three realms of existence according to Buddhist cosmology, rebirth in which is achieved through mastering meditative techniques known as the four dhyānas or meditative absorptions; this realm has seventeen subdivisions. The beings reborn here possess ethereal physical bodies and experience only three senses: sight, hearing, and touch. Attachment to material objects is in general less than in the desire realm (Skt. kāmadhātu).

A deva or god in the formless realm.

Here in Transformation of Karma Tibetan nyon mongs pa is an old Tibetan expression for sdug bsngal ba (see Rnam rgyal tshe ring 2001, s.v. nyon mongs pa) and is used in the senses of to afflict, distress, to cause someone (mental) pain or suffering; distressing; (living in) distress (n.).

The fifth of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

One of the eleven virtuous mental factors (Tib. sems byung dge ba; Skt. kuśalacaitta), a subgroup of the mental states or factors associated with the mind (Skt. caitasika, caitta), according to the Abhidharma. According to Vasubandhu (in his Pañcaskandhaka), khrel (“embarrassment” or “shame”) is different from ngo tsha (“scruples,” “conscience”) in that it is independent from others’ judgment of one’s behavior, and solely internal, in that it contradicts one’s internalized values. See “guilty conscience.”

Sanskrit ānantarya is a short for pañcā­nantaryāṇi karmāṇi. These are five grave sins which, when committed, lead one to fall immediately, i.e., with no intermediate period, into the Avīci hell after death due to their severity. Usually five are enumerated: killing one’s mother, father, or an arhat; causing dissension in the order of monks (the saṅgha); and deliberately causing a tathāgata’s blood to flow. But the exact number of items varies in different lists from two or three to five (cf. BHSD, s.v. ānantarya).

See “confidence.”

In Buddhist philosophy, the five basic constituents upon which persons are conventionally designated. They are material forms, sensations, perceptions, formations, and consciousness.

Love, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity; also often called the four immeasurables.

This translates Sanskrit ārūpya­samāpatti (“attainment of formless absorptions”) or ārūpyāvacara­dhyāna in Transformation of Karma, which in Tibetan is usually translated as gzugs med pa’i snyoms par ’jug pa. The four states of imperturbability are (1) the sphere of infinite space; (2) the sphere of infinite consciousness; (3) the sphere of nothingness (literally, “the sphere in which there is not the slightest bit of anything present”); and (4) the sphere of neither mind nor no-mind. See also “meditative absorption.”

The family name of the historical Buddha Śākyamuni.

Literally “those who have gone to the afterlife.” A synonym or interlinear gloss for preta; ghost in Transformation of Karma. Pretas are a class of sentient beings belonging to the “bad” or “unfortunate rebirth destinies” (Skt. apāya); see “animal.” In the commentary to the Petavatthu (the seventh book of the Khuddakanikāya of the Pāli Canon), the former term is explained as “having gone to the beyond or the afterlife” (Pāli paralokagata), which is effectively the same as Sanskrit preta and Pāli peta; departed, dead. The meaning of durāgata or dūraṃgama (“far-going,” “going here and there”) may refer to the belief that the ghosts of the deceased are able to move freely and quickly through space because they do not have physical bodies, and that the realm of the ghosts does not, in fact, exist in a fixed location but is everywhere. As the stories of the Petavatthu illustrate, the worlds of ghosts and humans often intertwine.

Part of the Tibetan translation of a Skt. stock phrase for the expression of esteem. See “renown,” “good reputation.”

Part of the Tibetan translation of a Skt. stock phrase for the expression of esteem. See glory, renown.

The eighth of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

One of the eleven virtuous mental factors (Tib. sems byung dge ba; Skt. kuśalacaitta), a subgroup of the mental states or factors associated with the mind (Skt. caitasika; caitta), according to the Abhidharma. According to Vasubandhu (in his Pañcaskandhaka), ngo tsha (“scruples,” “conscience”) is different from khrel (“embarrassment” or “shame”) in that it is independent from others’ judgment of one’s behavior, and solely internal, in that it contradicts one’s internalized values and one’s inner moral compass. See “embarrassment.”

The hell realm(s); Transformation of Karma does not differentiate, or at least does not itemize, the different Buddhist hells.

One of the six rebirth states; see “animal”.

Lacking knowledge of or being ignorant [of the Dharma]. J. S. Negi (Negi 935, s.v. ngan pa) cites a few instances where Tibetan ngan pa represents the Sanskrit semantic field “lack of understanding,” e.g., Bodhi­caryāvatāra (Tib. ngan pa; Skt. ajñaḥ “not knowing,” “devoid of knowledge,” “stupid,” “foolish,” etc.); Jātakamālā (Tib. ngan pa; Skt. jaḍā matiḥ “dull,” “stupid,” “irrational”); Avadāna­kalpalatā (Tib. ngan pa; Skt. mūrkhāḥ “stupid, dull-headed; a fool”). Context suggests that this is one sense of ngan pa in Transformation of Karma when it talks about the Dharma and knowledge thereof. Also translated here as “bad deed.” See also n.­43.

In early Buddhism, a teacher who teaches the Dharma and Vinaya to novices and new monks, and who can replace the preceptor (Skt. upādhyāya), if one loses one’s preceptor.

A transitional, discarnate state of a sentient being between death and rebirth, classically said to last up 49 days; its existence was and is not accepted by all Buddhist schools (not, e.g., by the Theravādins).

A bird said to have a song sweeter than any other. Sometimes said to refer to the avadavat, sometimes to the Indian Cuckoo, but used as a simile it is a reference that is partly mythical; the kalaviṅka is said to sing sublimely even before being hatched.

Literally meaning the “fruit” of action(s), karmic result denotes rebirth and karmic punishment and reward as a consequence of, and in accordance with the moral character of, one’s actions.

The complex process of the ripening of karma, i.e., the development of the karmic result (las kyi ’bras bu) of karmically relevant actions committed with body, speech, and mind by virtue of the power of the action as cause and supporting condition.

The first of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

In this text shes rab seems to mean primarily knowledge (defined as insight and understanding one has gained through studying and experience), specifically knowledge of the teachings of the Buddha in general, and of karmic cause and effect in particular (Cf. Edgerton, BHSD, s.v. prajñā: “(Skt., and Pāli paññā), knowledge: three kinds, śrutamayī, cintāmayī, and bhāvanāmayī”, i.e., knowledge consisting in listening to the teachings, reflecting on them, and meditation (cultivating or internalizing the teachings). Also translated here as “knowledge of the Dharma.”See also n.­56.

See entry “knowledge” and also n.­56.

Here, the third of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

See n.­213.

The fourth of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

Pre-reform Tibetan term for lha’i mig (“divine eye,” “clairvoyance”) one of the six supramundane powers (Skt. abhijñā) and of the three knowledges (Skt. trividyā): the ability to see things that are far away, mind-made bodies (of enlightened beings and advanced meditators), and the destinies of all beings according to their actions.

Designates both the mental state of deep concentration and the meditative practices leading to it. These states are characterized by a gradual withdrawal of consciousness from external sense data. Two broad distinctions are made: rūpāvacara­dhyāna or the meditative absorption associated with the form realm, and ārūpyāvacara­dhyāna or the meditative absorption associated with the formless or immaterial realm. Each of the two dhyānas is subdivided into four stages. See also “four states of imperturbability.”

The karmic potential that accumulates through good actions and which in the future results in happiness and good fortune.

The intention or the strong aspiration to attain enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Its two aspects on the relative level of truth are famously summarized in Śāntideva’s Bodhi­caryāvatāra (ch. 1, verses 15, 16): “15. Bodhichitta, the awakened mind, / Is known in brief to have two aspects: / First, aspiring, bodhichitta in intention; / Then active bodhichitta, practical engagement. 16. As corresponding to the wish to go / And then to setting out, / The wise should understand respectively / The difference that divides these two.” (tr. Padmakara Translation Group, The Way of the Bodhisattva, Boston: Shambala, 2011). On the level of absolute truth, mind of enlightenment means the realization of emptiness.

A sponsor of young novices and monks; he or she must have at least ten years of standing in the saṅgha, confers ordination, teaches, and provides students with all the necessary requisites. See also “instructor.”

This is likely a pre-reform expression. We were unable to determine the exact meaning of this Tibetan expression, and we did not find it used elsewhere in either the Kangyur or the Tengyur. In the Dictionary of Old Tibetan Orthography (Tib. bod yig brda rnying tshig mdzod) by rnam rgyal tshe ring (2001), we find the entry nyon mongs bzod; one who endures hardship or suffering, as an older Tibetan expression for a monk or nun (Tib. dge slong gi ming). Thus, one literal translation that we are proposing for this expression is “one who sustains (or endures) suffering (or hardship).” Comparison with similar contexts in related texts (Toh 338, 1.­13 (F.278.ab)) and passim, i.e., where we find rab tu byung ba tshul dang ldan pa rnams etc. instead, suggests that the expression may be a collective term for those who have entered the path to liberation (Skt. āryapudgala; Pāli ariyapuggala) or for the Buddhist saṅgha generally. See also “those who have entered the path of liberation.”

In Sanskrit, the term nirvāṇa literally means “extinguishment” and the Tibetan mya ngan las ’das pa literally means “gone beyond sorrow.” As a general term, it refers to the cessation of all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence, as well as to the state in which all such rebirth and suffering has permanently ceased.More specifically, three main types of nirvāṇa are identified. (1) The first type of nirvāṇa, called nirvāṇa with remainder (sopadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), is the state in which arhats or buddhas have attained awakening but are still dependent on the conditioned aggregates until their lifespan is exhausted. (2) At the end of life, given that there are no more causes for rebirth, these aggregates cease and no new aggregates arise. What occurs then is called nirvāṇa without remainder ( anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), which refers to the unconditioned element (dhātu) of nirvāṇa in which there is no remainder of the aggregates. (3) The Mahāyāna teachings distinguish the final nirvāṇa of buddhas from that of arhats, the nirvāṇa of arhats not being considered ultimate. The buddhas attain what is called nonabiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhitanirvāṇa), which transcends the extremes of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, i.e., existence and peace. This is the nirvāṇa that is the goal of the Mahāyāna path.

There are four kinds of “noble persons” (Skt. āryapudgala) according to the Śrāvakayāna path, characterized by a gradual abandonment of ten kinds of fetters (Skt. saṃyojana) that bind one to saṃsāra. This is the third of the four (or eight) stages of the realization of the supermundane path (and fruit) leading to awakening.

The second of the four (or eight) stages of the realization of the supermundane path (and fruit) leading to awakening. See “those who have entered the path of liberation.”

The (invisible) potential of a past action is that action’s inherent capacity “to ripen” into a karmic result under certain circumstances. Also translated here as “action.”

See “Prince Jeta’s grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.”

One of the first Buddhist monasteries, located in a park outside Śrāvastī, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kośala in northern India. This park was originally owned by Prince Jeta, hence the name Jetavana, meaning Jeta’s grove. The wealthy merchant Anāthapiṇḍada, wishing to offer it to the Buddha, sought to buy it from him, but the prince, not wishing to sell, said he would only do so if Anāthapiṇḍada covered the entire property with gold coins. Anāthapiṇḍada agreed, and managed to cover all of the park except the entrance, hence the name Anāthapiṇḍadasyārāmaḥ, meaning Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. The place is usually referred to in the sūtras as “Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park,” and according to the Saṃghabhedavastu the Buddha used Prince Jeta’s name in first place because that was Prince Jeta’s own unspoken wish while Anāthapiṇḍada was offering the park. Inspired by the occasion and the Buddha’s use of his name, Prince Jeta then offered the rest of the property and had an entrance gate built. The Buddha specifically instructed those who recite the sūtras to use Prince Jeta’s name in first place to commemorate the mutual effort of both benefactors. Anāthapiṇḍada built residences for the monks, to house them during the monsoon season, thus creating the first Buddhist monastery. It was one of the Buddha’s main residences, where he spent around nineteen rainy season retreats, and it was therefore the setting for many of the Buddha’s discourses and events. According to the travel accounts of Chinese monks, it was still in use as a Buddhist monastery in the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, but by the sixth century it had been reduced to ruins.

The Sanskrit word means literally “world of the dead”; one the five (or six) rebirth destinies belonging to the unfortunate (or lower) realms of rebirth. According to Indian Buddhist sources, Yama as the Lord of Death presides over the realm of the (hungry) ghosts (Skt. preta).

Sanskrit and Pāli asura literally means “non-gods”; often translated as “demigods, titans.” A class of beings that rank between devas and humans. The asuras were expelled from their original home in the god realm because of their chronic jealousy; now they wage constant war with the devas in the hope of regaining their old home. According to Transformation of Karma, this class of beings is counted among the unfortunate (or lower) realms of rebirth.

Part of the Tibetan translation of a Skt. stock phrase for the expression of esteem. See glory, good reputation.

Here, the opposite of wrong view , i.e., belief in karmic cause and effect.

See “roots of wholesome states.”

According to most lists (specifically those of the Pāli and some Abhidharma traditions), the (three) roots of virtue or the roots of the good or wholesome states (of mind) are what makes a mental state good or bad; they are identified as the opposites of the three mental “poisons” of greed, hatred, and delusion. Actions based on the roots of virtue will eventually lead to future happiness. The Dharmasaṃgraha, however, lists the three roots of virtue as (1) the mind of enlightenment, (2) purity of thought, and (3) freedom from egotism (Skt. trīṇi kuśala­mūlāni | bodhi­cittotpādaḥ, āśayaviśuddhiḥ, ahaṃkāramama­kāraparityāgaśceti|).

See n.­214.

A state of involuntary existence conditioned by afflicted mental states and the imprint of past actions, characterized by suffering in a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. On its reversal, the contrasting state of nirvāṇa is attained, free from suffering and the processes of rebirth.

The six perfections of the bodhisattvas: giving (Skt. dāna), morality (Skt. śīla), patience or forbearance (Skt. kṣānti), effort (Skt. vīrya), concentration (Skt. dhyāna), and wisdom (Skt. prajñā). The Mahāyāna also offers a list of ten perfections which, however, are different from the ten perfections of the bodhisattva in the Pāli tradition. (See also n.­172.)

The second of the four states of imperturbability, which leads to rebirth in the formless realm (Skt. ārūpyadhātu).

The first of the four states of imperturbability. In the formless realm (Skt. ārūpyadhātu), no bodies or materiality of any kind exist, only mind; rebirth there is the result of accomplishing four formless meditative absorptions (Skt. ārūpya­samāpatti; five absorptions, i.e., if one includes the stage of Skt. saṃjñā-vedayita-nirodha or nirodhasamāpatti).

The fourth of the four states of imperturbability or formless meditative absorptions or attainments (Skt. ārūpya­samāpatti), which leads to rebirth in the formless realm (Skt. ārūpyadhātu) as a deva without form.

The third of the four states of imperturbability, which leads to rebirth in the formless realm (Skt. ārūpyadhātu) as a deva without form.

The capital of the ancient Indian kingdom of Kośala, and the setting for many sūtras as the Buddha spent many rains retreats outside the city. It has been identified with the present-day Sāhet Māhet in Uttar Pradesh on the banks of the river Rapti.

The second of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

One of twenty or twenty-four so-called secondary mental defilements or afflictions.

There are four kinds of noble persons (Skt. āryapudgala) according to the Śrāvakayāna path, characterized by a gradual abandonment of ten kinds of fetters (Skt. saṃyojana) that bind one to saṃsāra. This is the first of the four (or eight) stages of the realization of the supermundane path (and fruit) leading to awakening or liberation.

A Buddhist monument and reliquary holding the relics of a buddha or some highly revered Buddhist master, representing the enlightened mind of a buddha. See “ caitya .”

See also “distress.”

An epithet of the Buddha meaning “one who has gone to bliss” or, interpreting gata as denoting a state of being rather than literal motion, “one who has fared well.” The epithets sugata and tathāgata in this sūtra, which likely belonged to the canon of an early Buddhist school, seem to refer to the historical Buddha rather than to buddhas in general.

According to the Pāli Canon, a young man of the brahmin caste, son of the brahmin Taudeya (Pāli: Todeyya) of Tudigāma. He converted to Buddhism after hearing a discourse by the Buddha.

A relic of the Sinitic vocabulary in Tibetan texts (see McKeown 2010, 23). yang dag par gshegs pa renders Chinese ru lai 如來, which in turn renders Sanskrit tathā + āgata (“thus come”). This was apparently given preference by the Chinese translators of canonical texts over ruqu 如去, Sanskrit tathā + gata (“thus gone”). According to R. A. Stein, Tibetan translators, while aware that ru lai 如來 was a translation of the Sanskrit compound tathāgata , chose to translate ru lai as yang dag par gshegs pa “perfectly (or purely) come (or gone).” By thus deviating from the original sense of the epithet they indirectly marked the Tibetan translation as potentially Chinese in origin (McKeown 2010, 23).

A rich brahmin from Tudigāma (name of the town in the Pāli language) and Śuka’s father. (In Pāli, their names are given as Todeyya and Subha, respectively.)

A spiritual teacher with whom one has a personal teacher–student relationship.

The ten nonvirtuous or unwholesome actions as they occur in 1.­63 (note that only nine are listed): killing, stealing, leading an unchaste life (as an ordained person), lying, divisive speech, [abusive language], trivial talk, greed, hatred, and wrong view. (see also individual entries).

See “ten nonvirtuous actions.”

The opposites of the ten nonvirtuous courses of action (as they occur in 1.­63; note that only nine actions are listed): Abstaining from killing, stealing, leading an unchaste life, lying, divisive talk, [abusive language], trivial talk, greed, hatred, and wrong views.

See “ten virtuous courses of action.”

Perhaps a gloss or paraphrase for noble persons or noble ones, i.e., those who, through having reached the path of seeing, belong to one of four types: stream enterer (Skt. srota-āpanna), once-returner (Skt. sakṛdāgāmin), non-returner (Skt. anāgāmin), or worthy one (Skt. arhat ). These stages are characterized by the gradual elimination of the fetters (Skt./Pāli saṃyojana) that bind one to saṃsāra and to being an ordinary person (Skt. pṛthagjana; Pāli puthujjana).

The Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha‍—the three objects of Buddhist refuge. In the Tibetan rendering, “the three rare and supreme ones.”

The three objects of Buddhists’ refuge, also known as the Three Jewels: the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha.

The seventh of the ten nonvirtuous actions.

The so-called lower realms of rebirth (see “unfortunate rebirth destinies”).

Usually Tibetan ngan song [gsum] is an expression for the three lower realms of rebirth according to Buddhist cosmology: animals, ghosts, and hell beings. Here, however, the asuras are counted among lower rebirths too.

An ideal monarch or emperor who rules in accordance with the Dharma over the entire universe or large parts of it (whatever the spatial extent of the known universe at a given time is conceived to be). A world system can have only one universal monarch at one given time, just as it can have only one buddha. Like a buddha, a universal monarch possesses the thirty-two major marks of a great being (Skt. mahā­puruṣa­lakṣaṇa), and in addition he possesses seven precious objects: his magical wheel or disc, an elephant, a horse, a wish-fulfilling gem, a queen, a treasurer, and a counselor. He rules on the basis of ten royal qualities (Skt. rājadharma): generosity, ethical conduct, nonattachment, honesty, gentleness, austerity, non-anger, nonviolence, patience, and tolerance.

In general, a term for a pure monk or ascetic (or the saṅgha as a whole) who can be considered as a field of merit (Skt. puṇyakṣetra) due to his or her (innate) ability to karmically reciprocate acts of generosity and kindness toward him or her.

The tenth of the ten nonvirtuous actions; also one of five commonly listed kinds of erroneous views, wrong view designates the disbelief in the doctrine of karma, i.e., rebirth and karmic punishment and reward as a consequence of one’s actions (i.e., cause and effect of actions).

The view that causes (and thus actions) do not have effects, and that the self is the same as one (or all) of the psycho-physical aggregates (Skt. skandhas) and that it is destroyed at death; often mentioned together with “wrong view of eternalism.” Also often translated as “nihilism.”

The wrong view or belief that the self exists in (or as one or all of) the psycho-physical aggregates (Skt. skandhas), or independent from them, and that it lives on unchanged and eternally after death; mentioned together with the “wrong view of annihilation.”

Literally “the view or theory of nonaction,” which defines a view that is ascribed to the teacher Pūraṇa Kassapa in the Sāmaññaphalasutta (DN I,53), who propounded that actions, whether good or evil, have no consequences whatsoever or, more precisely, that one’s soul or true self (and thus salvation or liberation) remains ever unaffected by good or bad actions.

This renders the vocative Tibetan ma na ba, which is an approximate phonetic rendition of Sanskrit māṇava “lad, boy, youth; young brahmin” (cf. Apte, s.v. māṇava). When not in the vocative in direct speech, we have translated it as “brahmin youth.”