Notes

n.1This is how the sūtra is classified in the Degé edition of the Kangyur, which no doubt followed the classification of the text in the Denkarma catalog (see Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, 156, no. 284). The term Hīnayāna is problematic for its derogatory connotations. On the problems with the common distinction of two “vehicles” (Hīnayāna/Mahāyāna), see Skilling 2013, 75–79.

n.2Skt. kāmāloka/kāmadhātu, rūpaloka/rūpadhātu, and arūpaloka/arūpadhātu/ārūpyadhātu. We have adopted Gethin’s English translations of these terms (Gethin 1998, ch. 5, especially pp. 116–17). This summary of the Buddhist understanding of the cosmos according to the Abhidharma follows Gethin 1998 and The Sūtra on the Limits of Life itself. Gethin’s account follows mainly the Abhidharma tradition of the Theravādins. The accounts of other early Buddhist schools are largely in agreement and deviate only in certain details.

n.3Thus, kāmāvacara, rūpāvacara, and arūpāvacara in Sanskrit. Skt. avacara here means the range or scope of the mind’s activity, i.e., what is or can be experienced.

n.4Realms of existence (also sublevels) here translates Skt./Pāli bhūmi (see Gethin 1998, 116).

n.5The ten wholesome courses of action are usually expressed as the opposites of the ten unwholesome courses of action, thus, e.g., not killing living beings (Skt. aprāṇātighāta), etc. The Skt. collective term for the fortunate rebirth-destinies is sugati; the Tib. is bde ’gro.

n.6The Heaven of Limited Radiance, the Heaven of Boundless Radiance, and the Heaven of Luminous Radiance.

n.7The Heaven of Limited Virtue, the Heaven of Boundless Virtue, and the Heaven of Perfect Virtue.

n.8For the Theravāda account, see Gethin 1998, 116–17.

n.9Alternative translations that are often met with in secondary literature are “unconscious devas” or “unconscious beings,” “Concept-Free Gods,” etc. R. Sharf (Sharf 2014) argues that the Insentient Beings constitute a nominal category, necessitated by the internal logic of the Abhidharma system of meditation that designates a certain divine state of existence which, according to the Buddhist conception of the cosmos, is located in the form realm, and which is characterized by no conscious experience at all. This state of total mental calm is said to be the specific result of a meditative absorption called the attainment of the meditative state without consciousness (asaṃjñi­samāpatti or asaṃjñā­samāpatti). This appears to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from the cessation of sensation and conceptualization (samjñā-vedayita-nirodha or, in short, nirodha-samāpatti), a praised state of meditative absorption that is achieved only by non-returners or arhats as a result of mastering the complete sequence of the eight absorptions. We have adopted the translation “Insentient Beings” from Robert Sharf (see Sharf 2014). A good alternative translation may be “Concept-Free Gods,” since it is not at all clear that this state entails a complete loss of consciousness, although in nontechnical usage Skt. saṃjñā can have this meaning (e.g., in expressions like vilupta-saṃjñā, “lost consciousness”).

n.10“Ordinary” here means that this state is also attained by ordinary persons (pṛthagjana), i.e., those who have not achieved one of the stages that characterize noble persons (ārya-pudgala). Vasubandhu explains in the AKBh (AKBh(P), 68–69 on AK II.42): “To which bhūmi does it belong? 42b. In the Fourth Dhyāna. In order to cultivate this absorption, the ascetic should have entered the Fourth Dhyāna. Why does one cultivate it? 42c. Through desire for deliverance. The ascetic falsely imagines that āsaṃjñika, the non-consciousness that constitutes the result of the non-conscious absorption, is true deliverance. Āsaṃjñika, being retribution, is necessarily morally neutral. As for the non-conscious absorption, it is 42d. Good. It produces as its retributive result the five skandhas of a nonconscious god, who, as we know, is conscious at birth and at death […]. This absorption is cultivated only by Pṛthagjanas. 42f. Not by Āryans. The Āryans consider this absorption as a precipice, a calamity, and do not value entering it. On the contrary, Pṛthagjanas identify non-consciousness (āsaṃjñika) with true deliverance; they have no idea of ‘going out’ with respect to it; hence they cultivate the absorption that leads to it. But Āryans know that the impure cannot be true deliverance. Hence they do not cultivate this absorption” (tr. Pruden 1988–90, vol. 1, 223–24; the numbers followed by letters in the citation indicate the pādas of the verse that is commented upon).

n.11Detailed explanations on the traditional concepts of the universe can be found, e.g., in Vasubandhu’s AKBh (= Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, ch. 3, especially pp. 451–74 (vol II) or in Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, ch. 2).

n.12Cf. Gethin 1998, 121–22.

n.13See Neelis 2011, 61–62.

n.14See Sarao 2012, 55.

n.15The title of the Chinese translation is given by Matsumura as Fo-shuo chiao-liang shou-ming ching. The sūtra is found in Taishō no. 759 (Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, vol. 17, pp. 601al–604a22). See Matsumura 1989, 73. For more information on this version of the sūtra, see Lewis R. Lancaster, “K 1105,” The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue.

n.16For example, the verses 42–46 in Matsumura’s Sanskrit edition (cf. 1.­72–1.­76 in this translation) correspond to Udānavarga, Vācavarga (varga VIII), verses 2–6; see Bernhard 1965, 161–63. The sūtra does not indicate that these verses are found also in other Buddhist works.

n.17See Matsumura 1989, 72.

n.18See Matsumura 1989, Introduction: pp. 72–75. Matsumura has also published his own Japanese annotated translation of the Āyuḥparyanta­sūtra, which unfortunately could not be consulted in its original language by the present translator. Those who read Japanese are referred to Hisashi Matsumura, “Bonbun Kyōryōjumyō-kyō,” Review of International Buddhist University Faculty of Letters 14 (1982): 59–81.

n.19Occasionally the Tibetan translation contains unexpected and unusual terms when compared to the Mahāvyutpatti, the famous Sanskrit–Tibetan lexicon used to help standardize translations in the massive state-sponsored translation program of the early translation period in Tibet. For example, Skt. verse 40 (cf. 1.­66) has in Tib. dge slong (“[fully ordained] monk”) instead of the expected dge sbyong for the Sanskrit śramaṇa. However, Skt. verse 48 (cf. 1.­79) pādas ab, which is identical to the passage in verse 40, does have the expected translation equivalent dge sbyong. To give another, perhaps more substantial, example, the Sanskrit text lists the Insentient Beings and the devas of the Unlofty Heaven with different lifespans, five hundred and one thousand eons respectively, while the Tibetan translation lists these two classes of devas together as having the same lifespan, namely, one thousand eons. See Matsumura 1989, 86 (Sanskrit) and 99 (Tibetan), paragraphs 57 and 58.

n.20The Denkarma catalog is dated to c. 812 ᴄᴇ. See Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, p. 156, no. 284.

n.21For detailed information on Drakpa Shedrup, see Treasury of Lives. The larger first part of this commentary contains a concise, summarized version (don bsdus) of the two Karma­vibhaṅga­sūtras (Toh 338 and Toh 339; see Galasek-Hul and Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpoche 2023 and 2021), which largely follows the structure of Toh 339. The second part of Drakpa Shedrup’s text contains the commentary on The Sūtra on the Limits of Life. While Drakpa Shedrup’s commentary does not add any new information that is not available from the sūtra itself, it does stand out for its conciseness and very clear language.

n.22This is the standard sūtra beginning, which is missing in the Skt. edition of our text. We know from other Buddhist texts in Skt. that the formulaic beginning of sūtras may also be translated as, “This I have heard: At one time the Bhagavān was staying at…,” etc. (Skt. evam mayā śrutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā…, etc.) The matter continues to be debated by scholars. However, our translation follows the punctuation as found in the Tib. translation of the Āps, and in the majority of the Tib. translations of Skt. sūtras.

n.23According to the Tib. The Skt. text additionally contains the monks’ reply: “ ‘Yes, master,’ the monks replied to the Bhagavān. Then the Bhagavān spoke to the monks thus: (evaṃ bhadanteti. te bhikṣavo bhagavataḥ pratyaśroṣuḥ. atha bhagavān tān bhikṣūn idam avocat; Matsumura 1998, 75).”

n.24According to the Tib. For a similar passage, cf. dwags po thar rgyan in Guenther 1971, 62. It is interesting to note that syntax and lexis in a parallel passage in the dwags po thar rgyan are very similar to that of the Āps: rgyal chen rigs bzhi’i tshe tshad ni gang yin pa de ni dmyal ba yang sos kyi nyin zhag gcig yin la | de sum cu la zla ba gcig| zla ba bcu gnyis la lor brtsis pa’i yang sos kyis rang lo lnga brgya thub bo | | mi lo ltar na bye ba phrag ’bum drug khri nyis stong yod do||. The Skt. locution appears to be idiomatic and is difficult to render literally in English (Matsumura 1989, 75, paragraph 4): tena rātri(ṃ)divasena tṛṃśad rāt[r]akeṇa māsena, dvādaśa māsakena saṃvatsareṇa, tayā saṃvatsara[ga]ṇanayā paṃca varṣaśatāni pretānām āyuṣaḥ pramāṇaṃ.

n.25For the Skt. āśraya in the sense of “body,” cf. BHSD; the Tib. translation has lus (“body”), which is not attested as a standard translation equivalent for āśraya in the Mvy. For a similar passage in the Divyāvadāna describing the appearance of the pretas, see n.­26.

n.26A similar passage describing the appearance of pretas can be found in the Divyāvadāna, tr. Rotman 2008, 47: “Soon five thousand pretas who looked like scorched wooden pillars, raised up skeletons covered with hair from head to toe, with stomachs like mountains and mouths like pinholes, surrounded Śroṇa Koṭikarṇa” (yāvat pañcamātraiḥ pretasahasrair dagdha­sthūṇāsadriśair asthi­yantravaducchritaih svakeśa­roma­praticchannaiḥ parvatodara­saṃnibaiḥ sūcī­chidropama­mukhair anuparivāritaḥ Śroṇaḥ Koṭīkarṇaḥ. Ed. Cowell & Neil 1886, 7).

n.27Tib. kha gdangs gnam du lta, Skt. vidāritonmukhā (“with their mouths turned up and gaping”). The image that is being invoked here is perhaps that of extreme hunger that makes them gape their mouths and turn their faces upward in anxious expectation of any food or drink that might come their way.

n.28We interpret the Skt. compound kapālapāṇayo (ghorāḥ) as a karmadhāraya here (see Matsumura 1989, 76, v. 2c). For the only other occurrence of this term in Skt. Buddhist texts that we have come across so far, see Mahāvadāna­sūtra, where it clearly means “having/carrying a bowl in his hand” (see Mahāvadāna­sūtra, 16, §36.6, passim). The Tib. reads somewhat differently and its meaning is unclear: gzugs mi sdug pa ’greng zhing thod pa thogs (“Their deformed bodies stand erect and they hold bowl[s]”). Lama Kunga Rinpoche suggests either of two interpretations of the Tib.: (1) They are holding (skull?-)cups or bowls in their hands (constantly searching for food?); or (2) some feature of ugliness‍—referring to the form of their foreheads?‍—is being described (but the wording in Tib. is obscure). In later Skt. kapālapāṇi is used as an epithet of Śiva.

n.29The Tib. omits vyasana.

n.30The Tib. translators changed the order of the pādas of the Skt. verses 2–4 (Matsumura 1989, pp. 75–76) from six lines (= 12 verse-quarters) with 12 syllables per line (= the Skt. meter vaṃśastha) to eight lines (= two verses?) with nine syllables each. The content, however, is mostly identical. My translation follows more closely the Tib. translation here.

n.31Tib. shar gyi lus ’phags, “Majestic Body” (Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, 113). Skt. variant: Prāgvideha (so in AKBh; see also BHSD, s.v.). We leave the names of the four great continents untranslated in the main body of the text since the original form of the words in Skt. Buddhist literature is not consistent. For extensive explanations on the Buddhist world system itself, see Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, pp. 107–47; for the AKBh, see Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, ch. 3.

n.32Tib. nub kyi ba lang spyod, “Bountiful Cow” (Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, 113). Variants of the name in Skt. and Pāli: Aparagoyāna, Goyānīya (Pāli), Aparagodānika, °godānīya (Mahāvastu), Godānīya (AKBh), Avaragodānīya (Mūla­sarvāstivāda­vinaya, Gilgit), Aparagoḍānī (Lalitavistara), Aparagodāni (Dharmasaṃgraha); see BHSD.

n.33Tib. byang gi sgra mi snyan, “Unpleasant/Harsh Sound.” The Tib. translation of the Skt. uttarakuru derives from a folk etymology (Skt. nirukti): Skt. ku (-kuṃsita?) = Tib. ngan pa (“bad”) and Skt. ru (= rava) = Tib. sgra (“voice/sound”); cf. Mvy, s.v. uttarakuruḥ. The Skt. word, though, seems to have originated from the designation of an actual geographical location.

n.34The Tib. khyad par du ’gro ba means literally, “they achieve distinction.” For the Skt. equivalent viśeṣagāmin, cf. the similar phrase at SN V 370: || Yañca khvassa cittaṃ dīgharattaṃ saddhāparibhāvitam sīla-suta-cāga-paribhāvitaṃ || tam uddhagāmi hoti visesagāmi || || 5. Seyyathāpi Mahānāma puriso sappikumbham vā telakumbham vā gambhīram udakarahadam ogāhetvā bhindeyya || tatra yā assa sakkharā vā kaṭhalā vā sā adho-gāmī assa || yañca khvassa tatra sappi vā telaṃ vā tam uddhaṃgāmī assa visesāgamī ||. Tr. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2000, 1808–9: “But his mind, which has been fortified over a long time by faith, virtue, learning, generosity, and wisdom‍—that goes upwards, goes to distinction. Suppose, Mahānāma, a man submerges a pot of ghee or a pot of oil in a deep pool of water and breaks it. All of its shards and fragments would sink downwards, but the ghee or oil there would rise upwards.”

n.35According to the Tib. The Skt. is ambiguous (pāda b: āśaṃsanti dhanaṃ paraṃ). Matsumura (1989, 76) edited the manuscript reading parāṃ to param. But parāṃ is a possible genitive plural (see BHSG, 60, § 8.124.) which would match the Tib. translation. Matsumura’s edition means, “they hope for later riches.”

n.36Matsumura (1989, 76, note 3 to § [11]) gives the translation of the Chinese for this passage: “because they never accumulated positive actions, they will become low servants for others.”

n.37According to the Tib. The Skt. pādas cd of this verse are missing.

n.38According to the Tib. The pādas 8 ab are missing in the Skt. The verse presents an interesting argument for analogy (Skt. upamāna) as a source of knowledge with reference to the law of karma: the law of karma is generalized so as to apply also to cases that are not apparent or directly perceptible (Skt. parokṣa).

n.39All the four main and the eight intermediate continents of the world are inhabited by humans (except for Cāmara, which is said to be inhabited by the rākṣasas); see Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 455–57.

n.40Cf. AN IV 396: 1. Tīhi bhikkhave ṭhānehi Uttarakurukā manussā deve ca Tāvatiṃse adhigaṇhanti Jambudīpake ca manusse. Katamehi tīhi? 2. Amamā apariggahā niyatāyukā visesabhuno Imehi kho bhikkhave tīhi ṭhānehi Uttarakurukā manussā deve ca Tāvatiṃse adhigaṇhanti Jambudīpake ca ma-nusse. “Bhikkhus, in three respects the people of Uttarakuru surpass the Tāvatiṃsa devas and the people of Jambudīpa. What three? (1) They are without selfishness and possessiveness; (2) their life span is fixed; and (3) their living conditions are exceptional. In these three respects the people of Uttarakuru surpass the Tāvatiṃsa devas and the people of Jambudīpa” (tr. Bhikkhu Bodhi 2012, 1277).

n.41Cf. AKBh(P) 269,24–269,25 on AK IV.116: surūpatvaṃ yaśasvi vā | priyatā sukumārartu­sukha­sparśāṅgatā tataḥ || AK IV.116 || varṇasampannaṃ dattvā surūpo bhavati | gandhasaṃpannaṃ dattvā yaśasvī bhavati | gandhavad yaśaso dikṣu vidhāraṇāt | rasasaṃpannaṃ dattvā priyo bhavati | rasa iva svāduḥ | sparśasaṃpannaṃ dattvā sukumārāṅgāś ca bhavati ṛtusukhasparśāni cāsyāṅgāni bhavanti yathā strīratnasya | “ ‘Whence results beauty, glory, love, tenderness (of youth), and a body with pleasant sensations, always perfectly adapted to the seasons.’ Beauty comes from giving perfect-colored objects; fame comes from giving perfect-smelling objects, since, like a fragrance, fame is carried into all directions. By giving perfect-tasting objects, one becomes loved, just as a sweet taste [is loved by all]. By giving (things) that are excellent in their tactile quality one becomes someone whose body is ever youthful and has pleasant sensations that are always perfectly adapted to the seasons [i.e., cool when it is hot and warm when it is chilly; cf. AKBh(P)(D), 743,23–25], like the jewel-like wife [of a universal monarch].”

n.42According to the Tib. The word order is different in the Skt. Pāda b is missing, and pāda c is incomplete.

n.43According to Skt. The Tib. is unclear: “Through the gleam of a light-causing gem they are always beautified. It is [also] that which allows them to digest their food.”

n.44According to the Tib., which permutes the order of the Skt. pādas bc.

n.45According to the Tib. The Skt. speaks of the alābu, i.e., the bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria).

n.46Literally, “after harvesting them, they can be eaten without having to prepare them.” The Tib. is slightly ambiguous, however: btso mi dgos par can mean “not needing to cook” or perhaps “not needing to prepare,” i.e., the fruits can be eaten “as is.” (cf. Jäschke, s.v. btso: “purification, refining; ser la tso tang ba ‘to refine gold’ (which term eventually is the same as ‘to boil’).” The Skt. apakṣalūnāṃ is obscure (a + prakṣalu, “without washing”?). Lama Kunga Rinpoche favors the translation “there is no need to wash them.”

n.47The water with eight superior qualities is an Indian Buddhist trope. The eight qualities are cool, sweet, light, soft, clear, flavorsome, not upsetting to the stomach, and smooth in the throat.

n.48The Tibetan and Chinese versions insert this extra stanza (cf. Matsumura 1989, 76, n. 13, [11]).

n.49According to the Tib. The verb rtse (= Skt. verbal root krīḍ) can have a sexual connotation, but it can also mean just “to frolic, play.”

n.50Skt. prathame yāme: traditionally, the night is subdivided into three periods of three hours each; cf. MW, s.v. yāma.

n.51According to the Tib. The Tib. translation brings out a causal relationship between pādas ab. The Skt. just reads, “A mother does not recognize her son. The idea of possession and ownership does not exist.” See Skt. verse 22, pādas ab: mātā puttraṃ na jānīte nāsti teṣāṃ parigrahaḥ.

n.52According to the Tib. The Skt. is different: na śocaṃti pṛyair nāśaṃ, “They do not lament the death of a loved one.”

n.53D here reads bar ma don ni ’chi med pa, which seems to be scribal error. We follow the readings of the other Tib. editions and the critical ed. of Matsumura here and read bar ma dor ni ’chi med pa.

n.54According to the Tib. The syntax of the Skt. (pādas abc) is slightly different: “After they have spent one thousand human years there, they die, but not before their time” (āyur varṣasahasraṃ hi kṣapayitvāttra mānuṣaṃ | mriyaṃnte nāntareṇeti).

n.55According to the Tib. The Skt. seems to suggest a reading, “Having spread and increased their glory, they will not be reborn among the devas” ((kṛtvā) ca vipulaṃ śriyaṃ).

n.56According to the Tib. The Skt., curiously, reads (verse 27c): deveṣu nopapadyate, “they will not be reborn among the devas.”

n.57The Skt. text has the orthographic variant jambūdvīpa (in the secondary vṛddhi-formation jāmbūdvīpakā manuṣyā). The Tib. phonetically transcribes this name ’dzam bu’i gling; this (i.e., our) continent is named after the jambu tree (“rose apple”? But probably a mythical tree) that grows on it, and it is the only continent where bodhisattvas and cakravartins (universal monarchs) can be born. Cf. DPPN; Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, 112.

n.58The lifespan of human beings in Jambudvīpa decreases and increases according to the kalpas. A more literal translation of the Skt. and Tib. would be, “Monks, for the human beings of Jambudvīpa, there exists increase as well as decrease [of the lifespan].”

n.59The respective maximum lifespan depends on the current kalpa: In the first kalpa it is unlimited, in the last kalpa it is ten years (cf. AKBh on AK III.78 = Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 470). These numbers concur with the Pāli tradition; cf., e.g., Cakkavattisīhanādasutta (DN 26).

n.60According to the Tib. The Skt. stresses “the present time” (etarhi) by placing it in sentence-initial position.

n.61This is an idiomatic expression in Sanskrit Buddhist texts: samyaksukhena parihṛyamāna = Tib. legs par bde bar gnas na (cf. Avś: Speyer, I.194 = Vaidya, 88: samyak sukhena parihriyete); cf. also the Skt. idiom sukha-(sparśa-)vihara, “to be comfortable, to be at ease.”

n.62The Tib. omits “during a lifespan of one hundred years” (varṣaśataṃ khalu jīvaṃ) and reads instead “Monks, with respect to the stages of life…” (dge slong dag ’tsho ba’i gnas skabs ni). The term avasthā (or daśā; Tib. ’tsho ba’i gnas skabs) is a technical term in Abhidharma literature denoting the different particular constellations (?) or states of the five skandhas within the chain of the twelve links of the formula of dependent arising (Skt. pratītya­samutpāda). Cf. Bronkhorst 2009, 94: “each of its twelve elements was a state (daśā or avasthā) of the five aggregates (skandha).” See also AKBh(P), p. 231,12–13 on AK IV,53 ab, where Vasubandhu mentions a different set of avasthā: five stages of the embryo and five stages of a grown-up human being: pañca hi garbhāvasthāḥ | kalalārbuda­peśīghana­praśākhāvasthāḥ | pañca jātāvasthāḥ | bāla­kumārava­madhya­vṛddhāvasthāḥ.

n.63The Tib. reads stobs dang ldan pa, rendering the Skt. pratibhānavān, which is very likely an error; the expected translation equivalent of pratibhāna would be spobs pa (cf. Mvy, s.v.).

n.64According to the Tib. The Skt. text is corrupt here; although the meaning of the passage seems to be quite straightforward, the remaining Skt. fragment of the corresponding part of the sentence seems to have a different reading compared to the translation equivalent of the Tib. given in the Mvy: khong du chud pa, avabodha (see Mvy, s.v. avabodhaḥ; cf. Matsumura 1989, 78 [14]).

n.65According to the Skt. The Tib. reads, “In the eighth stage one is revered as an elder, and even kings show their respect” (gnas skabs brgyad pa ni rgyal pos bkur zhing rgan rabs su bkur ba yin no).

n.66According to the Skt. The Tib. reads, “At the tenth stage one has reached the end of life and is near to death” (gnas skabs bcu pa ni tshe’i mthar thug pa ste ’chir nye bar yin no).

n.67The three seasons are a common trope in Indian Buddhist literature; cf. AKBh(P), 177,19–21 on AK III 88c–89d (= tr. Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 475). Yaśomitra, the commentator of the AKBh, makes an interesting remark about this in his commentary, Sphuṭārthā Abhidharma­kośa­vyākhyā : pravacane traya eva rtavo na yathā loke ṣaḍ iti. śiśiro hi śītasāmānyād dhemanta ity uktaḥ. vasanto ’py uṣṇasāmānyād grīṣma ity uktaḥ. śarad api vṛṣṭisāmānyād [Tib. 320.b] varṣā ity ukteti, “In Scripture, only three seasons [are mentioned], not six as there are in the world.”

n.68According to the Tib., but the passage is not entirely clear. The Skt. reads sārdhaṃ (bhaktāntarāyaiḥ) (Matsumura 1989: 78 [16]). The Tib. has ma gtogs par, which would rather correspond to Skt. vinā. Either way, the meaning here is all the meals, i.e., inclusive and/or exclusive of the times when one can or does not eat (i.e., the times in between meals as well as, and perhaps inclusive of, in-between meals). The Skt., on the other hand, as given above, may rather translate to “including that which one eats in between main meals.”

n.69According to the Tib., which is quite clear: phongs pa byung nas, “having become poor/when impoverished”; the Skt. is more ambiguous with the adjective kṛcchraprātaḥ, literally “being filled with difficulty (or pain, calamity, danger).”

n.70According to the Tib. (bsnyungs ba byas te ma zos pa). The Skt. manuscript is defective here. Twelve akṣaras are missing, along with a missing word or compound ending in -pano: apatarpaṇam (“fasting during illness”?). Cf. Negi, s.v. bsnyung ba. bsnyung gnas is a well-known fasting practice in Tibetan Buddhism centering on a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara.

n.71For another account of the lifespans of beings in the desire realm, see AKBh on AK III. pp.78–85 (English tr. Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 470–74).

n.72Here and throughout according to the Tib. (de ni sems can dmyal ba chen po yang sos kyi nyin zhag gcig go). The Skt. translates literally to “This is one day and night in the great hell Revival.”

n.73This hell derives its name from the fact that the beings reborn there must spend their time tied to one another and beating and killing each other. They are subsequently revived by a cold wind and then start all over again (see Guenther 1986, 57).

n.74For detailed descriptions of the hells, explanations of their names, and the lifespan of beings in Gampopa’s dwags po thar rgyan, see Guenther 1986, 57–61.

n.75From Gampopa we learn that in this hell, beings wake up and find lines drawn with a black thread all over their bodies, which mark the places where flaming axes and saws will cut them into pieces (cf. Guenther 1986, 57).

n.76According to the Skt., which has the arithmetically correct number. The Tib. is unclear: lo bye ba phrag sa ya nyis ’bum dgu khri drug stong rtsa cu gnyis. The number of years mentioned in Gampopa’s dwags po thar rgyan (cf. Guenther 1986, p. 59) is identical with the Skt.: “twelve times one hundred thousand ten million years, and ninety-six thousand times ten million (= 12,960,000,000,000) years.”

n.77The diction has changed in the Tib.: dus ma yin par ’chi ba ni yod do. The Skt. is the same as in the other paragraphs (asty antareṇa kālakriyā). According to Negi (Negi 2000, vol. 6, 2230, column II, s.v. dus ma yin pa’i ’chi ba), one would rather expect Skt. akāla-maraṇa.

n.78The Skt. passive past participle drugdha has active meaning (lexicalized), cf. pw, s.v. druh.

n.79In other words, people who openly neglect their religious duties and practice. The Skt. (pāda a) of this verse is defective. Matsumura (1998, 80 [23]) reads as the first word of the defective line adhura (= Tib. mi brtson pa?). Cf. BHSD, s.v. dhura: “burden,” esp. religious obligation or duty (corresponds to the Pāli gantha (“study of texts”), vipassanā (“reflection”), saddhā (“faith”), sīla (“moral discipline”), and paññā (“knowledge”)).

n.80According to the Tib. The Skt. (pāda d) is unclear (+cakā nyatikā mṛṣāḥ).

n.81The Skt. contains the arithmetically correct number. The Tib., however, deviates (lo bye ba phrag bcu bzhi dang | lo khri bzhi stong = ?).

n.82See Guenther 1986, 57. The beings reborn there are pressed between mountains or iron plates, and their crushed bodies are revived again only to experience the same kind of suffering again until their time there is over.

n.83According to the Skt., which has the arithmetically correct number. The Tib. deviates (lo bye ba phrag sum ’bum drug khri brgyad stong rtsa gcig = ?). See Guenther 1986, 59: “this is ten million times ten million years and three hundred and sixty-eight thousand times ten million years.” Konchog Gyaltsen’s translation of Gampopa (1998, 99) has: “The life span in the Crushing hell is 2,000 years, which is similar to that of the Free-of-Combat devas. In human terms, this is equal to 103,680,000,000,000 years.”

n.84Threefold here means the actions carried out with body, speech, and mind.

n.85According to the Tib.

n.86According to the Tib. (ba lang, “cow, ox”) The Skt. manuscript has a lacuna here. Matsumura suggests reading balākān (“crane,” balāka). Cf. MW, s.v. balāka: “a kind of crane (the flesh of which is eaten).”

n.87According to the Tib. (bya gag), which may mean either waterfowl (e.g., ducks) or chickens or other kinds of (wild) birds hunted as game. The Skt. has kuk[k]uṭa (“chicken”). The Mvy lists Skt. vakaḥ, “heron, crane” (cf. MW), as the standard translation equivalent for bya gag.

n.88See Guenther 1986, 58: “so named, because the inhabitants there utter terrifying cries.”

n.89This is the arithmetically correct number according to the Skt. if we interpret the word nayuta as “one million” (= prayuta?): tad bhavati māṇuṣikayā gaṇanayā aṣṭau varṣakoṭīna(yutāny ekona)ttriṃśac ca varṣakoṭīśatasahasrāṇi [catuścatvāriṃ]śac ca varṣakoṭīsahasrāṇy āyuṣaḥ pramāṇaṃ (Matsumura 1989, 95, [28]). The Tib. seems to have listed the numbers of the numerical expression in a different order: lo bye ba phrag sa ya gnyis dang | bye ba phrag dgu ’bum bzhi khri bzhi stong dang | bye ba phrag brgyad (= 82.944 x 1010 or 29,440,080,000,000 years?). Cf. dwags po thar rgyan, 43: mi lo ltar na | bye ba phrag bye ba brgyad dang | bye ba phrag lnga ’bum bzhi dang | bye ba phrag sa ya lnga bzhi khri nyis stong yod do, which seems to suggest yet another number. See, however, Guenther’s tr. (Guenther 1986, 59): “eight million times ten million years and two million times ten million years and nine hundred and forty-four thousand times ten million years.” Cf. also the arithmetically correct number in Konchog Gyaltsen’s translation of the dwags po thar rgyan (Konchog Gyaltsen 1998, 99): “829,440,000,000,000 years.”

n.90According to the Skt. The Tib. is unclear (gzhal lugs [L glugs] g.yo dang sgyu [L sgyur] byed mi). The Skt. words tūṭaka and vaṭika in pāda d are problematic. Vaṭika seems to be just a variant spelling for vātika, for which see MW: “m. a man of mere words, noisy talker, flatterer; m. a juggler or conjurer.” The word tūṭaka seems to be a misspelling of the Skt. kūṭaka, for which the PED gives the following meanings: “a trap, a snare; fig. falsehood, deceit,” etc., and MW: “mfn. false, untrue, deceitful […]; n. counterfeited objects (of a merchant).” The Skt. in pāda c reads na datto bhairavaṃ nādaṃ, which makes sense in this context. The Tib. translation does not seem to have picked up the negation (Skt. na) and reads, “And who use their voice to terrify others” (’jigs su rung ba’i sgra ’byin cing).

n.91The comparative list of the dpe bsdur ma Kangyur edition gives two variant readings here: Yongle has gzhan la for gzhal (lugs?), and Choné, too, according to Matsumura’s critical edition, reads gzhan. We follow Yongle here.

n.92See also Guenther 1986, 58; Konchog Gyaltsen 1998, 99.

n.93According to the Skt., which has the arithmetically correct number. The Tib. reads bye ba phrag sa ya gsum dang bye ba phrag lnga ’bum khri nyis stong drug cu rtsa drug (≠ 663.552 x 1010). See also Konchog Gyaltsen (1998, 99): “6,635,520,000,000,000 years.”

n.94According to the Skt. The Tib. reads just “Wailing” (ngu ’bod).

n.95According to the Tib. The Skt. reads viśvāsaghātaka (“traitor”), which is paraphrased in the Tib. translation.

n.96According to the Tib. (bskor ba’i khyim gyi nang chud nas). The Skt. of this pāda is defective. Matsumura’s reading is unclear (dahyante nta [xx] ruddhā); See Matsumura 1989, 82, [32].

n.97The restored Skt. text (Matsumura 1989, 82) reads ṣo[ḍaśa varṣa]śatāni, “one thousand six hundred years.”

n.98See also AKBh on AK III.71a and b, tr. Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 466: “There are beings whose objects of desire are created by others but who themselves dispose of these objects created by others. These are the Paranirmitavaśavartins.”

n.99See Guenther 1986, 58; Konchog Gyaltsen 1998, 99, for descriptions of this hell.

n.100According to the Skt., which has the arithmetically correct number. The Tib. reads lo bye ba sa ya phrag brgyad dang | bzhi ’bum dang | lo bye ba phrag khri drug stong lnga brgya sum cu yod de (= 80,165,300,400,000?).

n.101According to the Tib. (rtag tu). This is not reflected in the Skt. The Skt. verse additionally contains śiṣṭais (a translation equivalent is missing in the Tib.): śramaṇān brāhmaṇān sādhūn mātaraṃ pitaraṃ tathā | saṃtāpayati yo śiṣṭais tapane sa prapadyate, “He who vexes the good ascetics and brahmins or his parents with leftover food (śiṣṭa?) will fall into [the great hell] Heat .”

n.102Our reading here follows the Degé edition (which reads gdung, “to torment, to scorch”) against the readings of Yongle, Lithang, Narthang, and Choné (Kangxi reads rdud), which all read rdung, “to strike, hit” (the Skt. equivalent for that would be kuṭṭayati, cf. Mvy, s.v.). The Tib. gdung byed pa corresponds roughly to the Skt. saṃtāpayati (one would perhaps expect yongs su gdung bar byed pa), which reflects the older name (Tib. gdung) of the hell Heat (Skt. tapana), which in later Tibetan translations is rendered tsha ba. See also the next verse, where we translated gdung byed ba as “inflicts pain.”

n.103The Tib. reads dge slong (usually = bhikṣu/bhikṣuka; cf. Negi, s.v. dge slong). The Skt., however, has śramaṇa, which usually designates, together with brāhmaṇas, non-Buddhist practitioners (however, see also Beckwith 2015, ch. 2). The Mvy lists dge sbyong as possible translation equivalent for śramaṇa. Cf. also 1.­79.

n.104Here our translation follows the edition of Yongle and Kangxi instead of Degé, which reads las.

n.105Here starts an explanation of the so-called cold hells. According to Vasubandhu, the Skt. names of the cold hells indicate either the shape of the beings reborn in a particular hell or the noise that the denizens of a particular hell make (e.g., Skt. Hell of Chattering Teeth ; see Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 459 and 473 on the lifespan in arbuda ). According to Gampopa’s dwags po thar rgyan, the names indicate the kind of physical torment one experiences in them, e.g., in Blistering Hell (Skt. arbuda , Tib. chu bur can), blisters are said to appear on the skin and burst open due to the intense cold in this hell. Other names, like in Vasubandhu’s explanation, are clearly onomatopoeic (e.g., the Hell of Lamentation, Skt. hahava, Tib. kyi hud zer ba or Skt. huhuva, Tib. a chu zer ba). See Guenther 1986, 60–62; Konchog Gyaltsen 1998, 101–3. For another version of this story including the concluding verses, see The Hundred Deeds, Toh 340, 3.366–3.374.

n.106Syntax according to the Tib.

n.107The Tib. reads literally, “a khal bcu tshad nyi shu pa that fits khal bcu tshad nyi shu Kosalan sesame seeds.” It is not known what exactly this expression means, but it is clearly referring to some kind of container with fixed measurements. The equivalent in the Skt. text seems to be the word vāha, which here seems to refer to some sort of measuring cup with the dimension of one khārī (see the following notes n.­108 and n.­109).

n.108The Tib. khal (Skt. khārī ) is a Tibetan measure of capacity for commodities, especially barley, etc. (1 khal = 20 bre). According to Jäschke 1977, this constitutes “a bushel.” See also Goldstein 2001, s.v.: “a standard Tib. measure of volume, equal to about thirty pounds of barley.” According to MW, however, the ancient Indian measure of capacity, one khārī, equals 3 bushels, i.e., 4 pecks (= 2,150.42 cubic inches or 35.24 liters according to the American system, and equal to 2,219.36 cubic inches or 36.37 liters in the British Imperial System; see American Heritage Dictionary, s.v. bushel). See, however, Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 539, note 474: “Tib. khal = khāri”? and Guenther 1986: p. 61: “a sesame store containing eighty bushels.” According to Negi, the Skt. equivalent of Tib. khal brgyad bcu pa is viṃśatikhārika, which indicates that eighty khal in the Tib. system corresponds to twenty khārī of the Indian measurement system (see Negi 1993, vol. 1, 333). However, the Tib. translation of the Āps has khal bcu tshad nyi shu (“twenty of the 10-khal measure” or “twenty ten-bushel vessels”; see The Hundred Deeds, Toh 340, 3.372). Despite the uncertainties in both the Tib. and the Skt. readings (this passage has been restored by Matsumura based on parallel versions in other texts; see Matsumura 1989, 82 [37], note 1), we are using the Sanskrit terms in our translation. The uncertainties involved in determining the exact modern Western equivalents of these measurements seems even greater.

n.109To get an idea of the dimensions spoken of here, the reader may be referred to Thomas 1874, 26–28: “2,867,200 ratis = 1,638,400 grains = 20 droṇas = 1 ¼ khārīs = l kumbha 17,920.” See also Crook & Osmaston 1994, 123–28 (the table on p. 124 states for contemporary Ladakh: 20 bre [= 1 khal] = 12–14 liters, 9–10 kg of barley).

n.110The Tibetan says literally, “Just as are twenty Blistering Hells, so is one Bursting Blister Hell.” The English translations for the hahava and huhuva hells are Rotman’s (Rotman 2008, 378). For alternative English translations (based on the Tibetan) of the other cold hells, cf. Könchok Gyaltsen 1998, 100; see also Guenther 1986, 60–62 (which also contains a translation of our passage here relating the simile of the emptying of the sesame store). For other versions of the simile, see AKBh(P) on AK III, 84, English tr. Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 459, 473; The Hundred Deeds, Toh 340, 3.372; Sn III.10 (Kokāliyasutta).

n.111Almost verbatim parallels of this paragraph are found in AKBh(P) 175, pp.19–24 = SN I 152 = AN V 173. For further references to the Chinese canon, see Matsumura 1989, 83, notes on [37], [38].

n.112We follow Narthang lhas byin, Skt. Devadatta .

n.113For Kokālika, cf. DPPN, s.v.

n.114According to the Tib. The Skt. reads literally, “because he has defiled his mind in the presence of the monks Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana (śāriputtra­maudgalyāyanayor bhikṣor antike cittaṃ pradūṣya).

n.115See the Kokālikasutta for his story, Sn III.10, especially vv. 657–78 (Engl. = Norman 2001, pp. 85–87); AN V 171–74 and II 3; SN I 149ff; Netti 132.

n.116“With his own body” here means without taking on a new form in the intermediate state between death and rebirth (Tib. bar ma do, Skt. antarābhava) or new skandhas after being reborn. The AKBh explains, “Actions very grave (by intention and in scope) and complete (that is, “accumulated,” iv.12) ripen before death itself. Mara then felt a retribution in this life before feeling a retribution in hell. The text thus means that Mara was enveloped, while still alive, by the fires of hell” (Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, 388).

n.117Translation according to the Skt. unless noted otherwise. Other versions of the verses and the foregoing prose portion can also be found in the Pāli Kokāliyasutta, Sn III.10, vv. 657–61 (prose text and vv. 657–60 = SN I 152–54 (cf. AN V 170–74), and in the Uv VIII.2–6; Sn verses 661–62 = Dhp. 306, one hundred twenty-five; as well as in the Suvarṇa­varṇāvadāna, Roy 1971, 314 (English tr. Rajapatirana 1974, 120).

n.118According to the Tib. The (Buddhist Hybrid) Skt. version of this verse is a pun on the Sanskrit word kali that is lost in the Tibetan translation. The Tibetan translators chose to render kali as sdig pa, literally, “sin.” The word kali is employed here twice in its two senses: “the losing throw at dice,” and “calamity” or “evil” (see Norman 2001, 292, note to Sn verse 659). The Skt. (in Matsumura’s restored version of the verse) means, “A small measure indeed is that unlucky throw of the dice, through which one loses one’s own wealth. That is a greater calamity, which consists in getting angry toward the Sugata (alpamāttro hy ayaṃ kalir / ya ihāksaiḥ svadhanaṃ parājayet / ayam attra mahattaraḥ kalir / yaḥ sugateṣu manaḥ pradūṣyet // 44 // See Matsumura 1986, 84).

n.119According to the Skt. and the Pāli. Cf. the parallel verses in the Sn (v. 660) and the Suvarṇa­varṇāvadāna (Roy 1971, 313–14). The Skt. words arbuda and nirarbuda /nyarbuda here are numerals (= ten million and one hundred million, respectively; cf. MW and pw). See also Norman’s comment on this verse (Norman 2001, 292): “The names are not names of hells, but of numerals.” The number here expressed may be ten trillion thirty-six (and five?) million (10,000,036,000,000). But the numerals are ambiguous. For a parallel passage containing different numbers, see The Hundred Deeds (Toh 340), 3.364. The Tib. of pādas cd reads stong phrag brgyar ni chu bur rdol nas su | chu bur can du sum cu rtsa drug go. The Tib. translators seem to have interpreted chu bur rdol and chu bur can as designating the two cold hells: “(Those who abuse a noble being will go to hell.) After one hundred thousand [years? lives?] in the Bursting Blister Hell, they [will go] to the Blistering Hell for thirty-six [years? lives?].” However, the Tib. does not indicate a time unit (years? lives?). It is likely that the Tibetan translators were unfamiliar with the use of Skt. arbuda and nirarbuda as numerals. Rajapatirana seems to have taken the parallel passage in Suvarṇa­varṇāvadāna as expressing the number of arbuda and nirarbuda hells, which is likely wrong (Rajapatirana 1974, 120): “For they are a hundred thousand Nirarbudas, and thirty-six and five Arbudas, to which hells he who blames an Ārya goes.”

n.120According to the Tib.: sdig pa’i sems kyis bden par mi smra ba || bdag nyid brlag cing dmyal bar ’phen par byed ||. The Skt. reads asatābhivadanti (pā)[pa]citta | narakān ātmavadhāya varddhayant(e), “Those who intend evil speak untruth. [Thus] they perpetuate hell and work for their own demise.” Matsumura compares a parallel verse in the Uv and notes its greater similarity to the Skt. Āps (see Matsumura 1989, 85, n. 21).

n.121Guenther 1986, 58: “(vii) Rab.tu tsha.ba (Pratāpana, Intense Heating Hell) is so called, because beings there are tormented in a very special way. When they have been burnt with molten metal so that no skin is left and while fire flames from the nine openings of the body, they are pierced through with three-spiked weapons from the anus and the soles of the feet to the head and shoulders: Some are boiled in a / Burning stream of molten bronze, / Others are impaled / On red-hot thorny iron stakes.” See also Konchog Gyaltsen 1998, 98.

n.122Guenther 1986, 58, 59: “(viii) The torture of the denizens of the mNar.med (Avīci) hell consists in being thrust into huge iron kettles filled with molten (32a) bronze or copper from vast cauldrons and then being boiled over an unbearably hot fire. As has been written: Some are cast into iron kettles / Head down like the ingredients of rice soup. / Because of the uninterrupted pain this hell is called mNar.med (Avīci).” See also Konchog Gyaltsen 1998, 98.

n.123We here read with Narthang and Lhasa: mthun pa. Cf. Mvy, s.v. samagraḥ, which is also the attested reading in our Skt. text.

n.124Devadatta’s intention was to kill the Buddha. The story of how Devadatta schemed to kill the Buddha in order to inherit his leadership of the Saṅgha is relayed in several Buddhist texts (for the Theravāda tradition see the entry on Devadatta in DPPN).

n.125According to the Tib. (dge slong ma dgra bcom pa bsad pas). The Skt. reads bhiksunīṃ vārhantīṃ ghātayitvā, “having slain a nun or an arhantī.” No such incident is mentioned in the extant Pāli canonical accounts about Devadatta. Neither the Skt. text nor the Tib. translation of the Āps mentions the name Utpalavarṇā. But this incident, the beating of the bhikkhunī and arhantī Utpalavarṇā by Devadatta, is well known from the Mūla­sarvāstivāda­vinaya, a comparatively late Vinaya; see Lamotte 1988, 657–59. On Devadatta and his murder of the nun Utpalavarṇā in connection with the “sins of immediate retribution” (ānantaryakarma), see Silk 2009, 236, n. 6. For a summary of the episode itself in the Mūla­sarvāstivāda­vinaya, see Panglung 1981, 123.

n.126Almost identical to the Āps verses 49–51 are the verses Uv VIII.7–9; the last line of verse 49 is missing in the Skt. of Uv. Verses similar to Āps 49 and 50 can be found in the different extant versions of the Dhammapada (Patna, Gandhārī); for references cf. Matsumura 1989, 85, note [44].

n.127Bambusa bambos or Bambusa arundinacea. Translated according to the Tib. The Skt. reads (Matsumura 1989, 85 [44]): yaḥ [śā]sanam āryāṇāṃ arhatāṃ dharmajīvināṃ | pratikrośati durmedhā dṛṣṭiṃ niśṛtya pāpikāṃ | phalaṃ kaṇṭakaveṇur vā [phalat]y [ātmavadhāya saḥ || 49 ||, “He who, having resorted to evil views, scorns the teachings of the noble ones who live by the Dharma and are worthy of respect, cultivates the fruit that leads to his own destruction, like the fruit of the bamboo. (Cf. the variant readings: Dhp 164: phalāni kaṭṭhakasseva; GDhp 258 phalāṇi kaḍakaseva; and PDhp 316 phalāni kaṇṭakasseva, given in Matsumura 1989, 85, note on [44].) The bamboo plant is said to blossom and carry fruit very rarely, at large intervals. But when it does bear fruit, the whole plant or forest dies immediately thereafter. This is a well-known trope in Sanskrit Buddhist literature.

n.128According to the Skt. The Tib. made “those who live by the teaching of the noble ones” into the object of contempt instead of the teaching itself (’phags pa rnams kyis bstan pa yi | chos kyis ’os par ’tsho rnams la).

n.129The Skt. (Matsumura 1989, 85) reads saced muñcet pratimuñced mu(ñ)camāno hi vadhyate | na tām āryā vimuṃcanti bālā muṃcanti pāpikān || 5 ||. The Tib. translation seems to have taken the different Skt. uses of the verbal root muc (“to liberate,” “to emit words”), in a different sense (cf. Matsumura 1989, 89: gal te smra na dge ba smra’i | sdig pa smras na rlag par ’gyur). We have followed the first two lines of another version of this verse found in Uv (Tib. and Skt.) that makes better sense; see Bernhard 1965: na ca mukte pramuñcet tāṁ muñcamāno hi bādhyate | naivam āryāḥ pramuñcanti muktā bālair hi pāpikā || 8.9 [189], Tib.: byis pa sdig can smra byed pa || smra ba’i tshe na ’ching ’gyur la || gal te smra na gzhan spong ba || de dag ’phags pa mi gsung ngo ||.

n.130DPPN, s.v. brahmaloka: “The term Brahmakāyikā-devā seems to be used as a class name for all the inhabitants of the Brahma-realms.” [AN I 210: Kathañ ca Visākhe upakkiliṭṭhassa cittassa upakkamena pariyodapanā hoti? Idha Visākhe ariyasāvako devatānussarati‍—santi devā Cātummahārājikā, santi devā Tāvatiṃsā, santi devā Yāmā, santi devā Tusitā, santi devā Nimmānaratino, santi devā Paranimmitavasavattino, santi devā Brahmakāyikā, santi devā tatuttariṃ.] In our text here, however, the brahmakāyikā devāḥ correspond to the brahmaparisajjā devā in the Theravāda canon instead of being a collective term. In the following, translations of the names of devas other than our own are stated in the notes; we have consulted Walshe 1995, 39; Samtani 2002, pp. 98–99; and Gethin 1998, 116.

n.131According to the Tib. The Skt. reads kalpa āyuṣaḥ pramāṇaṃ, “one eon,” which is the same as in the AKBh(P) on AK III.80; cf. AKBh(D), pp. 532ff. The Pāli scholastic tradition presents yet different numbers for the lifespans of the three Brahma-devas (cf. Gethin 1998, 117): brahma-pārisajjā: “⅓ aeon; brahma-purohitā ½ aeon; mahā-brahmā 1 aeon.”

n.132According to the Tib. The Skt. reads addhyardha­kalpa, “one and a half (elsewhere this is numeric) eons.”

n.133Walshe: “Devas of Streaming Radiance”; Samtani: they are so called “because they flash radiance in all directions, illuminating all locations.”

n.134Walshe: “Gods of Limited Glory”; Samtani: “devas of limited auspiciousness.”

n.135Walshe: “Gods of Unbounded Glory”; Samtani: “their auspiciousness is unlimited.”

n.136Walshe: “Gods of Refulgent Glory”; Samtani: “[These devas are] wholly auspicious”; Gethin: “Complete Beauty.”

n.137This class of devas has no equivalent in the Pāli sources. Instead, the list of the Theravāda school has Vehapphalā devā following on the Śubhakṛtsnā devā (Pāli Subhakiṇṇā devā; Walshe: “Devas of Refulgent Glory”; Gethin: “Complete Beauty”). Samtani: “The devas [float] like clouds, never in contact with the earth. Hence they are Anabhrakā devas, the Cloudless Heaven devas.”

n.138No Pāli equivalent. Samtani: “Gods of virtuous birth who take birth from imperturbable (āniñjya) karma. Their birth (prasava) is due to merit.” Cf. also Samtani 2002, 228, note 64.

n.139Pāli Vehapphalā devā (Walshe: “Very Fruitful devas”; Gethin: “Heaven of Great Reward”). Samtani: “Gods destined to take birth in an ordinary place […], who nonetheless obtain the great and best reward.”

n.140According to the Tib. The Skt. has two separate paragraphs for the two categories, the asaṃjñā-satvāḥ and the avṛhā devāḥ (Matsumura 1989, 86, nos. [57] and [58] respectively) and gives different lifespans for each: five hundred and one thousand eons, respectively. The Skt. reads in English translation, “Precisely that‍—i.e., five hundred eons‍—is also the lifespan of the Insentient Beings. Premature death does occur. The lifespan of the devas of the Unlofty Heaven is one thousand years. Premature death does occur.” According to Matsumura (1989, 86, n. on [57]) the Chinese translation confirms the Sanskrit version.

n.141According to the Tib. The asaṃjñāsatvā are not listed in the Arv (Samtani 2002; Dharmachakra Translation Committee 2021). For abṛhā devāḥ, cf. Samtani: “not great” (for a more detailed description see Samtani 2002, 99: from this stage upward to Akaniṣṭha there are five Pure Abodes). For the term asaṃjñāsatvā‍—and the somewhat unsatisfactory translation “Unconscious beings”‍—see the discussion in the AKBh: Pruden 1988–90, vol. 1, 221–23.

n.142Walshe’s translation; Samtani: “The devas who acquire through special samādhi immunity from the searing heat of the defilements are called Atapā devas.”

n.143Walshe: “The Beautiful (or Clearly Visible) devas (Pāli sudassā devā). Gethin: “Lovely”; Samtani: “Those who through pure vision see rightly are [called] Sudṛśa devas.” The Tib. translation inverts these two levels of the Pure Abodes: according to Mvy (s.v. sudarśanāḥ), the Tib. word that here seems to render Skt. sudṛśa (= shin tu mthong ba in Āps) usually corresponds to Skt. sudarśana, while the Tib. gya nom snang gi lha rnams usually renders the Skt. sudṛśā devāḥ. The Arv gives the order as sudṛśa > sudarśana (which corresponds to the Skt. ed. of the Āps) and the Pāli, too, has first sudassā and next sudassī (see Walshe 1995, 39).

n.144Walshe: “Clear-Sighted devas” (Pāli: Sudassī devā). Samtani: “Gods in this realm are delightful in appearance.”

n.145Walshe’s translation (Pāli: akaniṭṭhā devā). Samtani: “There being no higher stage than this, the devas of this realm, being the eldest, are called the Akaniṣṭhā.”

n.146The Skt. manuscript breaks off after ākā]śānaṃtyāyatanopagānāṃ. Matsumura provides his restoration of the Skt. text, based on the Tib. translation and the terminology found in Mvy 3107–13, in the notes on paragraph [63].

n.147Tib. srid pa’i ’byung bas chog shes par gyis shig. Literally, “Be content with the manifestation of existence.” However, the meaning cannot be contentment here. The Buddha’s command is rather meant in the sense, “do not perpetuate saṃsāra any further.”

n.148The Tibetan here may refer to a technical unit of time (Tib. de’i skad cig, Skt. tatkṣaṇa; in the order of magnitude of seconds) according to the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma (cf. Rospatt 1995, 99).

n.149“In the Dharma” is added here for clarification.