An attainment of effortless insight into emptiness‍—the realization that all phenomena are unborn (anutpāda) and empty of intrinsic nature (niḥsvabhāva). This acceptance supports bodhisattvas on the arduous path of returning through innumerable rounds of rebirth in order to benefit beings without being tempted by the goal of personal liberation. This attainment only occurs on the bodhisattva levels and is variously said to occur on the first and eighth bodhisattva levels.

The five aggregates that make up phenomenal existence are form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. On the individual level the five aggregates refer to the basis onto which the mistaken idea of a self is projected.

King of Magadha and son of King Bimbisāra. When he was a prince, he became friends with the Buddha Śākyamuni’s cousin Devadatta, who convinced him to have his father killed and become king instead. After his father’s death, he was tormented with guilt and regret, converted to Buddhism, and supported the compilation of the Buddha’s teachings during the First Council.

A buddha prophesied to appear in the future. This prophecy will be given to the bodhisattva Resounding Voice by the future buddha Vikurvāṇarāja.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

Known as “Bhadra the illusionist,” he was a powerful magician of Rājagṛha whose attempts to fool the Buddha go awry in The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

A collective name for the first three heavens of the form realm, which correspond to the first concentration (dhyāna): Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, and Mahābrahmā (also called Brahmapārṣadya). These are ruled over by the god Brahmā. According to some sources, it can also be a general reference to all the heavens in the form realm and formless realm. (Provisional 84000 definition. New definition forthcoming.)

The omniscience seeing both how things are ultimately and how they manifest in their variety. The buddha eye is also included in the “five eyes.”

The way to full awakening, equivalent to the Mahāyāna or Great Vehicle.

Refers to a calm state without thought, or the meditative practice of calming the mind to rest free from the disturbance of thought. One of the two basic forms of Buddhist meditation, the other being transcendent insight (Skt. vipaśyanā, Tib. lhag mthong).

Literally “wanderer,” refers to a religious mendicant; in Buddhist texts this term is often paired with parivrājaka in stock lists of followers of non-Buddhist ascetic traditions. In some cases, Tibetan sources will give this term as a translation of mīmāṃsaka, a member of the Mīmāṃsā school. However, this is likely a confusion with the similarly spelled dpyod pa ba, which correctly translates the Sanskrit meaning of mīmāṃsaka as “examiner” or “investigator.”

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

Designates both the mental state of deep concentration and the meditative practices leading to it. These states are characterized by a gradual withdrawal of consciousness from external sense data. Two broad distinctions are made: rūpāvacara­dhyāna, or the meditative concentration associated with the form realm, and ārūpyāvacara­dhyāna, or the meditative concentration associated with the formless or immaterial realm. Each of the two dhyānas is subdivided into four stages. This kind of mental concentration by itself does not lead to lasting insight, but it is generally regarded as a prerequisite‍—a state of mental concentration from which it is possible to cultivate insight, destroy the mental afflictions, and attain liberation. Fixation on dhyāna by itself can be said to lead to rebirth in the form or formless realm.

In reference to buddhas and bodhisattvas, nirmāṇa refers to the miraculous power of the buddhas, and bodhisattvas at a certain stage of spiritual development, to project emanations in order to develop and teach beings. In The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist, the same term is used both for the Buddha’s emanations and the conjurations that Bhadra magically creates through his power of illusion. While the sūtra makes a qualitative distinction between the two (see 1.­16), it is uncertain whether the same Sanskrit term underlies the Tibetan term sprul pa.

In the context of Buddhist philosophy, one way to describe experience in terms of eighteen elements (eye, form, and eye consciousness; ear, sound, and ear consciousness; nose, smell, and nose consciousness; tongue, taste, and tongue consciousness; body, touch, and body consciousness; and mind, mental phenomena, and mind consciousness).This also refers to the elements of the world, which can be enumerated as four, five, or six. The four elements are earth, water, fire, and air. A fifth, space, is often added, and the sixth is consciousness.

See “four correct discernments.”

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

These are eighteen unique qualities possessed by a buddha. They are “unique” in the sense that they are only possessed by buddhas and not by any other type of being. There are slight variations in the wording and order of the eighteen items found among various sources. For three canonical works that list the eighteen, see The Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Toh 11) at 2.8, The Jewel Cloud (Toh 231) at 1.249, and Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings (Toh 317) at 1.96.Eighteen special features of a buddha’s behavior, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by other beings. They are generally listed as: (1) he never makes a mistake, (2) he is never boisterous, (3) he never forgets, (4) his concentration never falters, (5) he has no notion of distinctness, (6) his equanimity is not due to lack of consideration, (7) his motivation never falters, (8) his endeavor never fails, (9) his mindfulness never falters, (10) he never abandons his concentration, (11) his insight (prajñā) never decreases, (12) his liberation never fails, (13) all his physical actions are preceded and followed by wisdom (jñāna), (14) all his verbal actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (15) all his mental actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (16) his wisdom and vision perceive the past without attachment or hindrance, (17) his wisdom and vision perceive the future without attachment or hindrance, and (18) his wisdom and vision perceive the present without attachment or hindrance.

See “conjuration.”

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

This refers to what occurs at the end of an arhat’s or a buddha’s life. When nirvāṇa is attained at awakening, whether as an arhat or buddha, all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence have ceased, but due to previously accumulated karma, the aggregates of that life remain and must still exhaust themselves. It is only at the end of life that these cease, and since no new aggregates arise, the arhat or buddha is said to attain parinirvāṇa, meaning “complete” or “final” nirvāṇa. This is synonymous with the attainment of nirvāṇa without remainder (anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa). According to the Mahāyāna view of a single vehicle (ekayāna), the arhat’s parinirvāṇa at death, despite being so called, is not final. The arhat must still enter the bodhisattva path and reach buddhahood (see Unraveling the Intent, Toh 106, 7.14.) On the other hand, the parinirvāṇa of a buddha, ultimately speaking, should be understood as a display manifested for the benefit of beings; see The Teaching on the Extraordinary Transformation That Is the Miracle of Attaining the Buddha’s Powers (Toh 186), 1.32. The term parinirvāṇa is also associated specifically with the passing away of the Buddha Śākyamuni, in Kuśinagara, in northern India.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

The five eyes are as follows: (1) the eye of flesh, (2) the divine eye, (3) the eye of insight (prajñā), (4) the Dharma eye, and (5) the buddha eye.

The name of our current eon, so-called because one thousand buddhas are prophesied to appear in succession during this time, Śākyamuni being the fourth and Maitreya the fifth.

Four aspects by which a bodhisattva or tathāgata makes correct discernment without making a mistake or confusing one phenomenon with another. The four are listed as (1) the correct discernment of meaning, (2) the correct discernment of Dharma, (3) the correct discernment of etymology or language (nirukti), and (4) the correct discernment of eloquence. See The Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Toh 11, 2.­6). They are also sometimes referred to as the four correct discernments of a tathāgata (tathāgatha­catuḥ­pratisaṃvid), which is the same set of four but refers specifically to the discernments of a tathāgata as opposed to those similarly possessed by bodhisattvas.

The four fearlessnesses (abhaya) or confidences (vaiśāradya) are assertions that a tathāgata makes with irrefutable certainty: that of being (1) awakened and knowing all phenomena, (2) knowing the exhaustion of all defilements, (3) correctly identifying all obstacles to liberation, and (4) revealing/actualizing the path that leads to liberation.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

Refers to the four basic bodily activities: walking or going (caṅkrama/gamana), sitting or staying (niṣīdana/niṣadana), lying down (śayyā/śayana), and standing (sthāna/sthita).

This denotes the assemblies of fully ordained monks and nuns, along with laymen and laywomen.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

Siddhārtha Gautama is the name of the Buddha Śākyamuni used prior to his awakening, and it is the name used by those who were not his followers. Gautama is his family name and means “Descendant of Gotama,” Gotama meaning “Excellent Cow.”

The Sanskrit pravrajyā literally means “going forth,” with the sense of leaving the life of a householder and embracing the life of a renunciant. When the term is applied more technically, it refers to the act of becoming a male novice (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or female novice (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma), this being a first stage leading to full ordination.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

The world system in which Bhadra is prophesied to appear as a tathāgata in the future.

One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology. Counted among the six heavens of the desire realm, it is traditionally located atop Mount Meru, just above the terrace of the abodes of the Four Great Kings. It is reigned over by Śakra and thirty-two other gods.

A magical illusion created by a conjurer or illusionist, or the power to create such an illusion. In the context of Buddhist literature, this is not considered to be a sleight of hand or visual trick but the actual appearance of something, such as an elephant or palace, created by magical means. Although this sort of magical illusion appears, it is unreal in the sense that there is no substantial basis for it beyond its magical appearance. In the Mahāyāna in particular, this sort of illusion (māyā created by magical means) is given as one example of how phenomena are empty and yet vividly appear; it is included in several lists of analogies for phenomena’s illusory nature.The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist uniquely describes the Buddha’s miraculous powers in comparison to the powers of Bhadra the illusionist, also describing the Buddha’s power with the term māyā; however, it is declared (1.­16) that the Buddha’s māyā is superior to Bhadra’s, which is limited and incomplete.Also translated as “power of illusion.”

A conjurer, sorcerer, or magician who has the ability to create illusions. See Introduction i.­8.

As the sixth of the six perfections, it refers to the profound understanding of the emptiness of all phenomena, the realization of ultimate reality‍. In other translations it is sometimes rendered as “wisdom”; however, we have reserved this latter term for the translation of jñāna . In other contexts it refers to the mental factor responsible for ascertaining the specific qualities of a given object, or whether it should be taken up or rejected.

The quality of intelligence, inspiration, and confident knowledge that allows one to teach and talk in the most appropriate way, even for very long stretches of time.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

Jinamitra was invited to Tibet during the reign of King Tri Songdetsen (khri srong lde btsan, r. 742–98 ᴄᴇ) and was involved with the translation of nearly two hundred texts, continuing into the reign of King Ralpachen (ral pa can, r. 815–38 ᴄᴇ). He was one of the small group of paṇḍitas responsible for the Mahāvyutpatti Sanskrit–Tibetan dictionary.

An epithet for softness, usually applied to cloth, probably in reference, directly or metaphorically, to the down of the kācilindika bird.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

An ancient Indian kingdom that lay to the south of the Ganges River in what today is the state of Bihar. Magadha was the largest of the sixteen “great states” (mahājanapada) that flourished between the sixth and third centuries ʙᴄᴇ in northern India. During the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it was ruled by King Bimbisāra and later by Bimbisāra's son, Ajātaśatru. Its capital was initially Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir) but was later moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern-day Patna). Over the centuries, with the expansion of the Magadha’s might, it became the capital of the vast Mauryan empire and seat of the great King Aśoka.This region is home to many of the most important Buddhist sites, including Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained awakening; Vulture Peak (Gṛdhra­kūṭa), where the Buddha bestowed many well-known Mahāyāna sūtras; and the Buddhist university of Nālandā that flourished between the fifth and twelfth centuries ᴄᴇ, among many others.

See “magical power.”

Various magical abilities developed as the byproduct of meditative concentration (dhyāna). These are closely related to the superknowledges (abhijñā), although knowledge of ṛddhi is listed as one of the five mundane superknowledges, in which case it specifically refers to the magical display of physical marvels such as walking on water, flying, bilocating, and so forth, while the other four refer to psychic abilities. See also “superknowledge.”

One of the Buddha Śākyamuni’s principal pupils, he is also referred to as Kāśyapa. Mahākāśyapa became the Buddha’s successor after his passing, and according to Pali sources he called and presided over the first Buddhist council to counter a schism started by Subhadra (Pali: Subhadda). Mahākāśyapa is considered foremost among the Buddha’s disciples in terms of his observance of ascetic practices (dhūtaguṇa). Mahākāśyapa is an interlocutor in many Mahāyāna sūtras. Pali: Mahākassapa

One of the two chief śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha Śākyamuni, along with Śāriputra. He is also referred to as Maudgalyāyana. According to Pāli sources Mahāmaudgalyāyana and Śāriputra were both older than the Buddha and childhood friends. They together renounced the world and became mendicants, spending much of their life searching for a teacher until Śāriputra encountered the Buddha’s disciple Aśvajit and heard the famous ye dharmā verse (see The Sūtra on Dependent Arising, Toh 212, i.­2). Śāriputra immediately attained the path of a stream enterer (srota-āpanna), and when he repeated the verse to Maudgalyāyana the latter attained it as well. The two soon went forth in the Buddha’s teachings, becoming arhats and the two chief disciples of the Buddha. Mahāmaudgalyāyana is considered foremost among the Buddha’s disciples in terms of his ability in magical powers (ṛddhi), and there are many accounts describing his magical displays such as flying and creating multiple forms of himself. Maudgalyāyana is an interlocutor in many Mahāyāna sūtras. Pali: Mahāmoggallāna

“Great Charioteer.” A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

When the Buddhist teachings are classified according to their power to lead beings to an awakened state, a distinction is made between the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle (Hīnayāna), which emphasizes the individual’s own freedom from cyclic existence as the primary motivation and goal, and those of the Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna), which emphasizes altruism and has the liberation of all sentient beings as the principal objective. As the term “Great Vehicle” implies, the path followed by bodhisattvas is analogous to a large carriage that can transport a vast number of people to liberation, as compared to a smaller vehicle for the individual practitioner.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

Literally, a wheel or disk of wind. This term is found in Buddhist cosmology, where a world system is built on top of various layers, one of which is a vāyumaṇḍala, or a cosmic disk of wind; however, in The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist, the term is used to describe the ten winds that will contribute to the conflagration and destruction of the trichiliocosm at the end of an eon. Also translated as “wind.”

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

Shortened form of Mahāmaudgalyāyana.

The four methods of attracting disciples are generosity (Tib. sbyin pa, Skt. dāna), pleasant speech (Tib. snyan par smra ba, Skt. priyavādita), helpfulness (Tib. don spyod pa, Skt. arthacaryā), and acting in a way that accords with the teachings (Tib. don ’thun pa, Skt. samānārthatā).

In the general Mahāyāna teachings the mind of awakening (bodhicitta) is the intention to attain the complete awakening of a perfect buddha for the sake of all beings. On the level of absolute truth, the mind of awakening is the realization of the awakened state itself.

See “miraculous power.”

A miraculous or wondrous power attributed to buddhas or, occasionally, other spiritually advanced beings. Generally these are miraculous displays for the purpose of benefiting beings or impressing them in such a way as to inspire faith and devotion. In this way, prātihārya is distinguished from ṛddhi (translated here as “magical power”), which is a more general term for magical or psychic powers typically obtained through meditative concentration (dhyāna). (Ṛddhi is also a subtype of prātihārya.) Although in many cases the Buddha dissuades monks from using miraculous powers to impress disciples or lay followers, he nonetheless exhibits them himself in many narratives. The two most well known of such events from the Buddha’s life were said to occur at Śrāvastī: the “twin miracle” (yama­kaprātihārya) where he simultaneously emanated fire and water from his body, and the “great miracle” (mahāprātihārya) in which the Buddha, while seated on a lotus, emanated multiple forms of himself in the sky‍—quite similar to his emanation of multiple Buddhas found in The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist (1.­59). A buddha’s miraculous powers for the purpose of benefitting beings are classified in three categories: (1) the miraculous power of magical display, (2) the miraculous power of foretelling, and (3) the miraculous power of instruction. These three are respectively associated with and considered to be aspects of the buddha’s body, speech, and mind. This term is translated elsewhere as “miraculous display.”

Second of the three miraculous powers. Since a buddha knows the minds of all beings, he knows just what to say in order to teach them. The Sanskrit ādeśanā means to “point out” or “foretell,” which he does through knowing the minds of beings, while the corresponding Tibetan term kun brjod pa (“all speaking” or “elocution”) highlights that the buddha’s speech is miraculous because he can teach the Dharma in any language.

Third of the three miraculous powers. A buddha’s miraculous power of instruction, which is an aspect of a buddha’s mind. A buddha knows his disciples’ afflictions and so is able to instruct them appropriately.

First of the three miraculous powers. A buddha’s miraculous power to display magical powers (ṛddhi) in order to inspire or convert beings to the Dharma. In regard to the triad of body, speech, and mind, this miraculous power is associated with a buddha’s body and so is usually conveyed through miracles done with the body such as flying through the air, multiplying into many bodies, projecting fire and water from the body simultaneously, and so forth. However, ṛddhi refers generally to any magical or supernatural power (such as psychic abilities). See also the entry for “magical power.”

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

Those of other religious or philosophical orders, contemporary with the early Buddhist order, including Jains, Jaṭilas, Ājīvikas, and Cārvākas. Tīrthika (“forder”) literally translates as “one belonging to or associated with (possessive suffix –ika) stairs for landing or for descent into a river,” or “a bathing place,” or “a place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams” (Monier-Williams). The term may have originally referred to temple priests at river crossings or fords where travelers propitiated a deity before crossing. The Sanskrit term seems to have undergone metonymic transfer in referring to those able to ford the turbulent river of saṃsāra (as in the Jain tīrthaṅkaras, “ford makers”), and it came to be used in Buddhist sources to refer to teachers of rival religious traditions. The Sanskrit term is closely rendered by the Tibetan mu stegs pa: “those on the steps (stegs pa) at the edge (mu).”

A wish-fulfilling tree that is sometimes associated with the coral tree (māndārava). There are many references to such trees, but the most famous is the one in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three enjoyed by the gods. It is rooted in Mount Meru and is a source of envy for the asuras, since they can only see its base, and the cittapātali tree that grows in their own realm pales in comparison.

A specific order of mendicants, or a general term for homeless religious mendicants who, literally, “roam around.” In Buddhist usage the term can refer to non-Buddhist peripatetic ascetics including Jains and others.

The term saṃjñā is used in an ordinary sense in Sanskrit to mean “notion,” “sign,” “conception,” or “clear understanding.” It is also used more specifically in Buddhist scholastic contexts for “the aggregate of perceptions” (saṃjñāskandha). In this presentation, as the third of the five aggregates, it refers to the mental function of differentiating and identifying objects according to their qualities. Thus it does not refer to the perceptions of the senses but to the conceptual notions or labels that are ascribed to sense perceptions before they may be conceived by the rational mind. In this sense, they are not really concepts or thoughts either, but rather the fundamental units ascribed to phenomena by the dualistic mind in order to form conceptual thoughts about them.

The trainings of the bodhisattva path. Most commonly listed as six: generosity, moral conduct, patience, diligence, concentration, and insight.

The provisional designation of a “person,” which, depending on differing opinions, is associated with one or more of the five aggregates. While all Buddhist schools reject the view of an autonomous self (ātman), most use the conventional designation of the “person” as a provisional way to discuss the identity of individual beings. The Tibetan etymology of the term gang zag (“full with outflow”) refers to the understanding that the individual person is full of qualities and/or afflictions but also flowing out, that is, eventually succumbing to impermanence and death‍—in essence, not an awakened being.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

“Glorious Light.” A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

“Light Array.” A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

An Indian Bengali paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. Arriving in Tibet on an invitation from the Tibetan king, he assisted in the translation of numerous canonical scriptures. He is also the author of a few philosophical commentaries contained in the Tibetan Tengyur (bstan ’gyur) collection.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

Literally “vehicle of conditions,” refers to the path of pratyekabuddhas.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

The bodhisattva who will be prophesied to become the Buddha All Pervasive Lord. This prophecy will be given to him by the future buddha Vikurvāṇarāja in the world system called Great Array.

The term dhāraṇī has the sense of something that “holds” or “retains,” and so it can refer to the special capacity of practitioners to memorize and recall detailed teachings. It can also refer to a verbal expression of the teachings‍—an incantation, spell, or mnemonic formula‍—that distills and “holds” essential points of the Dharma and is used by practitioners to attain mundane and supramundane goals. The same term is also used to denote texts that contain such formulas.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

“Charioteer.” A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.

To perform the ceremony whereby someone becomes a monk or nun.

“Lion.” A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

“Lion Intelligence.” A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

One of the Buddha Śākyamuni’s principal pupils and a close relative of the Buddha’s famous patron Anāthapiṇḍada. According to the Pali tradition, Subhūti is considered foremost among the Buddha’s disciples for dwelling peacefully in isolated places (Pali: dakkhiṇeyyānaṃ) and being a worthy recipient of gifts (Pali: araṇa­vihārīnaṃ aggo). He is said to have become an arhat through meditative concentration on loving-kindness (Skt. maitrīdhyāna, Pali: mettajhāna). On his alms rounds, Subhūti would cultivate loving-kindness for every household he visited, and thereby he bestowed the conditions for the highest possible merit for his donors. In the Mahāyāna tradition, he is particularly known to be one of the primary interlocutors in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras and is sometimes referred to as the foremost among the Buddha’s disciples for understanding emptiness, although as we see by his verse given in The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist he still retains his association with gift giving and generosity. Pali: Subhūti

The quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. This is the ultimate nature, as opposed to the way they appear to unawakened beings.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

Supernormal knowledge or psychic abilities acquired as a byproduct of meditative concentration (dhyāna). These are typically classified in a set of five or six: (1) clairvoyance (divyacakṣus, “the divine eye”), (2) clairaudience (divyaśrotra, “the divine ear”), (3) knowledge of the minds of others (paracittājñāna), (4) remembrance of past lives (pūrvanivāsānu­smṛti), (5) the ability to perform magical display (ṛddhividhi), and (6) the knowledge of the destruction of all mental defilements (āsravakṣaya). The first five are considered mundane or worldly and can be attained to some extent by non-Buddhist yogis as well as Buddhist arhats and bodhisattvas. The sixth is considered to be supramundane and can be attained only by Buddhist yogis.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Ten strengths possessed by a tathāgata: (1) the strength of knowing what is possible and what is impossible (sthānāsthāna); (2) the strength of knowing the maturation of actions (karma); (3) the strength of knowing the various constituents; (4) the strength of knowing the various inclinations of beings; (5) the strength of knowing whether beings’ faculties are superior or inferior; (6) the strength of knowing every path of travel; (7) the strength of knowing all the completely purified and totally afflicted aspects of entering the absorption of complete liberation (dhyānavimokṣha), meditative concentration ( samādhi ), and equipoise (samāpatti); (8) the strength of knowing the recollection of former abodes; (9) the strength of knowing the death, transference, and birth of beings; and (10) the strength of knowing the exhaustion of defilements.

The past, present, and future.

There are two common sets of three vows. The first is the pratimokṣa, bodhicitta, and mantra vows, and this schema was perhaps most famously promoted in Tibet by the thirteenth-century Tibetan polymath Sakya Paṇḍita. The second set, which is likely the set of three vows referred to here, consists of (1) the pratimokṣa vows (Tib. so thar gyi sdom pa) of the desire realm, (2) the dhyāna vows (Tib. sam gtan gyi sdom pa) of the form realm, and (3) the uncontaminated vows (Tib. zag med kyi sdom pa) maintained by those who have transcended the three realms and are at the level of a noble being.

May refer to a specific genre or style of scholastic Sanskritic literature, or simply to scholastic literature in general. In Buddhist traditions the term śāstra usually signifies a text that was composed by an ordinary human author, as opposed to a text first spoken, composed, or revealed by an awakened being. While the term is often used in reference to the Buddhist commentarial canon, or the Tengyur, the heretical treatises known by Bhadra in The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist would certainly not be Buddhist ones.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

Things as they truly are, with nothing imputed upon them through dualistic thinking.

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

Snake, serpent, or reptile. Literally, ones that “crawl on the belly,” sometimes an epithet of nāgas.

One of the thirty-two marks of a great being. It consists of a soft, long, fine, coiled white hair between the eyebrows capable of emitting an intense bright light. Literally, the Sanskrit ūrṇā means “wool hair,” and kośa means “treasure.”

One of the thirty-two signs, or major marks, of a great being. In its simplest form it is a pointed shape of the head like a turban (the Sanskrit term, uṣṇīṣa, in fact means “turban”), or more elaborately a dome-shaped extension. The extension is described as having various extraordinary attributes such as emitting and absorbing rays of light or reaching an immense height.

The palace or meeting hall of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

One of the common epithets applied to a buddha.

A mantra or sacred utterance for producing vidyā, which means “knowledge” or “insight.” The term vidyā has a wide range of meaning, but in this context, it may refer to a magic spell made for the purpose of attaining either worldly or transcendent benefits.

The view that perceives the transitory collection of the five aggregates as the basis for the self or that which belongs to a self. The Tibetan literally means “the view of the destructible accumulation,” and the Sanskrit means “seeing (dṛṣṭi) the body (kāya) as real (sat),” (i.e., the view that holds the body to be truly existent). Some sources classify twenty types of satkāyadṛṣṭī by delineating for each of the five aggregates the false notion that (1) the self is the same as the aggregates, (2) the self is contained in the aggregates, (3) the self is different from the aggregates, or (4) the self possesses the aggregates.

The buddha that Bhadra is prophesied to become in a future life in the world system called Great Array. Coincidently, there is a sūtra in the Kangyur called The Questions of Vikurvāṇarāja (Toh 167), but there is not likely to be any connection with the Vikurvāṇarāja prophesied here.

There are slightly varying lists of the sixty qualities or aspects of the buddha’s voice. Often an additional four are added, extending the list to sixty-four. One such canonical source for the list can be found in the Tathāgatācintya­guhya­nirdeśa­sūtra (Toh 47), 8.­3. This list is further elaborated by Daśabalaśrīmitra in the Saṃskṛtāsaṃskṛta­viniścaya (Toh 3897), folio 306.a.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

Although the Sanskrit term jñāna can refer to knowledge in a general sense, it is often used in Buddhist texts to refer to the mode of awareness of a realized being. In contrast to ordinary knowledge, which mistakenly perceives phenomena as real entities having real properties, wisdom perceives the emptiness of phenomena, that is, their lack of intrinsic essence.

The term lokadhātu refers to a single four continent world-system illumined by a sun and moon, with a Mount Meru at its center and an encircling ring of mountains at its periphery, and with the various god realms above, thus including the desire, form, and formless realms.The term can also refer to groups of such world-systems in multiples of thousands. A universe of one thousand such world-systems is called a chiliocosm (sāhasra­loka­dhātu, stong gi ’jig rten gyi khams); one thousand such chiliocosms is called a dichiliocosm (dvisāhasralokadhātu, stong gnyis kyi ’jig rten gyi khams); and one thousand such dichiliocosms is called a trichiliocosm (trisāhasra­loka­dhātu, stong gsum gyi 'jig rten gyi khams). A trichiliocosm is the largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.