Introduction

i.1Like most Buddhist tantras, the Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa­tantra (CMT) is regarded within the Vajrayāna tradition as a divinely revealed text, with its teachings delivered directly from the level of the saṃbhogakāya, that is, the bliss body of Lord Buddha. In such tantras, the saṃbhogakāya deity who delivers the original discourse varies‍—it could be Avalokiteśvara, Vajrapāṇi, or others. In this case, it is Lord Vajrasattva. The teaching itself takes the form of a dialogue between Vajrasattva and his consort. Lord Vajrasattva here assumes the identity of the deity Acala (Immovable One), which is another name for the deity of the title, Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa (Fierce Great Angry One). His consort is Vajra­dhātvīśvarī ( Goddess of the Vajra Realm ).

i.2As is the case with all tantras, the person who put the CMT into writing chose to remain anonymous in conformity with the tradition, which no doubt saw the author merely as a medium for conveying this secret teaching. However, in the search for the earthly origin of this text, the circumstantial evidence seems to point to a Nepalese origin, most likely Newar. Of the more than one hundred extant manuscripts of the CMT, ranging in date from 1380 up to the twentieth century, all were written in Nepal, as were the only two known manuscripts of the CMT commentary, the Padmāvatī.

i.3Although the tradition of this tantra and its title deity never became widespread or popular outside the Kathmandu Valley, it flowered and thrived for almost a millennium among Kathmandu’s Newar Buddhist community, leaving a rich legacy still evident today. There is at least one active shrine of Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa in the Kathmandu Valley; it is part of the sacred Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra complex in Patan. Most shops that sell Buddhist art in Kathmandu offer a selection of Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa paintings, and the CMT is still being taught by Newari Bajracharyas‍—themselves part of its unbroken spiritual heritage‍—such as Yagnyaman Pati Bajracharya, who traces his family line back to the eighth-century Buddhist master Vilāsavajra.

i.4The CMT appears to have drawn on a number of earlier scriptures, including the Guhya­samāja­tantra (Toh 442), the He­vajra­tantra (Toh 417), the Siddhaika­vīra­tantra (Toh 544), and the Citta­viśuddhi­prakaraṇa of Āryadeva (Toh 1804). In turn, it influenced other works, such as the Vidyā­dhara­vinoda­tantra. However, among all the works devoted to the deity Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa, the CMT is unquestionably the most important. Other works centered on this deity include sādhana, dhāraṇī, and stotra compositions‍—all of them, as their genres might suggest, much shorter than the CMT.

i.5One should note, however, that the CMT was not the first scripture to introduce its main deity. There is at least one earlier occurrence of the name Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa, found in the first chapter of the Siddhaika­vīra­tantra as part of the mantra oṁ caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa hūṁ phaṭ. Moreover, the deity himself seems to predate the name Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa. Under his other name, Acala, he has a tantra devoted to himself, the Acalakalpa. This is one of the core Kriyātantras of the Tathāgatakula group, predating the CMT by a few or even several hundred years. The name Acala is also found in the Vairocanābhi­sambodhi (Toh 494), one of the two known Caryātantra texts extant in Sanskrit. Although the cult of this deity under the name Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa was more or less confined to the Kathmandu valley, it spread farther afield under the name Acala, reaching as far as Japan, where the practice of Acala (“Fudō” in Japanese) became important in Shingon Buddhism.

i.6The text of the CMT exists in the original Sanskrit and in translations. Only parts of the Sanskrit text have been edited and published. Since no previous edition exists of the complete text, we had to reconstruct the Sanskrit text of the remaining chapters from manuscripts, revising the existing editions in the process. The resulting Sanskrit text of the complete tantra that appears as the appendix to this translation is a half-critical, half-diplomatic edition chiefly based on the oldest and the most correct of the CMT manuscripts.

i.7The Tibetan canonical translation, according to its colophon, was the work of one Trakpa Gyaltsen (grags pa rgyal mtshan) and the Indian scholar Ratnaśrī. As the translation was sponsored by Sherab Senge (shes rab seng ge), 1251–1315, we can safely conclude that the first of the two translators was Sherab Senge’s disciple, Trakpa Gyaltsen from Yarlung (yar klungs pa grags pa rgyal mtshan), 1242–1346, and not the celebrated Sakya scholar of the same name. It was completed at the monastery of Sakya (sa skya), in a year of the Snake, probably during Sherab Senge’s lifetime or soon after his death. This translation, which is the only one known to exist in Tibetan, is included in all the major editions of the Tibetan Kangyur.

i.8There are also two partial translations from recent years: an English translation by Christopher George and a German translation by Peter Gäng. George translated chapters 1–8, whereas Gäng translated the whole tantra except chapters 17–21, which he abridged into one short chapter. The translation presented here is therefore the first complete translation of this text since the Tibetan appeared. In general, it follows the Sanskrit edition, although it does at times incorporate the Tibetan; such instances are listed in the endnotes. However, as there are literally hundreds of minor differences between the Sanskrit and the Tibetan, not all variations have been noted; only major discrepancies have been included.

i.9The translation also attempts to reflect the exegesis found in the Padmāvatī, the only extant commentary on the CMT, which was written by one Mahāsukhavajra. The Padmāvatī is preserved in two Nepali manuscripts, one of which is a direct copy of the other. The older of the two, used for this translation, can be dated to 1297. This commentary has never been edited or translated, except the part corresponding to chapters 9–12 of the CMT, which was edited by Harunaga Isaacson to accompany his edition of the root text of these four chapters. Professor Isaacson’s edition, along with text-critical and analytical notes, was kindly made available for the present translation. The Padmāvatī covers select chapters only, and even then tends to skip lengthy parts of the text. This Sanskrit text, which was never translated into Tibetan, is in many places corrupt and fraught with ambiguities, and the manuscript is unfortunately not always legible. Nevertheless, a provisional transcript of the complete text was prepared to help interpret the root text in the course of this translation.

i.10The text of the CMT presumes the reader’s prior knowledge and understanding of Buddhism’s main principles, including the tenets of Vajrayāna. Further, it requires that the reader has faith and devotion, which is so indispensable for the intuitive grasp of, and the eventual awakening to, the true nature of things‍—the nature that is described as empty (śūnya). According to the CMT, this awakening is irreversible and is therefore termed indestructible awakening (vajrabodhi). It can only take place when all dualistic concepts, such as “pure” and “impure,” fall away. And it is here that the seemingly revolting practices found in our text become significant: they are a call to give up our deluded dualistic notions, while at the same time constituting a touchstone for the direct experience of reality, a reality where even what may seem revolting to the conceptual mind can now be experienced as the deity. The inclusion of such “extreme” practices is a testimony to the fact that the CMT presents us not with mere sophistries, but with practices rooted in actual experience.

i.11One needs to assume that the practice of Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa is secret to the same extent that all the Yoginītantra deity practices are. The CMT distinguishes between two types of conduct: the first, which is for everybody to see and which accords with Buddhism’s ten wholesome practices, is described as open (prakaṭa), and the other, which is secret, is termed inverted (viparīta). The motto of inverted conduct is:

i.12The text clearly states that the master must not give instructions on the “inverted” practices to someone who has not first been initiated into the maṇḍala of Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa. The initiation itself would not be effective unless the pupil has realized the empty nature of mind, and the practices must not be undertaken by someone who has not achieved sufficient control over his prāṇa-mind (vāyucitta). However, as there are currently no lineage masters who could give the Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa empowerment or even the reading authorization (Tib. lung) for the formal Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa sādhanas, or who could give instruction in other Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa practices found in the CMT, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to become initiated into these practices. As for simply reading the CMT, one should proceed at one’s own risk‍—with the prerequisite, at the least, of an open and respectful frame of mind.

i.13To facilitate the arising of nondual awareness, the tantras, especially those of the Yoginī class, bring in another essential element. This is the overwhelming intensity of experience that obliterates mental acts of self-reference. When this experience is founded on an exclusively benevolent frame of mind, such as the feeling of great affection (mahārāga), there is a chance that dualistic fixations can melt away, bringing on an irreversible change. This brings us closer to the specific content of the Caṇḍa­mahāroṣaṇa­tantra, namely its sexual practices. When used skillfully, sexuality becomes a powerful tool. The ritual union engages the two partners on all levels‍—the physical level; the level of the five senses (the senses constituting a bridge between the body and consciousness); and all the different levels of consciousness. The partners, perceiving each other as deities, generate strong love and devotion for one another. Their union allows for an intense experience, which brings the mind effortlessly into focus and sharpens the awareness. After the intensity peaks, there is a brief natural gap, when the three kleśas‍—desire, aversion, and indifference, which normally drive one’s conceptual thinking‍—completely cease. All that is needed at this point is recognition. This recognition can be arrived at and stabilized through the repeated practice of ritual union.

i.14The theory and practice of this union as presented in the CMT revolves around the four joys (caturānandāḥ). One observes these four as they arise during the ritualized lovemaking, and one learns to discern the “gap”‍—an ineffable state of nondual awareness at the point at which supreme joy (paramānanda) gives way to innate joy (sahajānanda). This gap can be discerned during the innate joy phase, which, as the commentary tells us, corresponds in the male to the period between the moment when semen reaches the tip of the penis, to the moment when all of the semen has entered the vagina. Once this gap‍—an interruption in the continuum of the subject, the object, and grasping‍—is recognized, one gradually learns to prolong this state of mind until one attains stability. The four joys are, in fact, the foundation stone for the practice of the deity Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa, and also the central theme of the soteriological part (roughly the first sixteen chapters) of the CMT.

i.15Readers not familiar with the social customs of the period might feel surprised at the young age of girls‍—sometimes as low as twelve‍—accepted as consorts in the practice of sexual yoga. Sexual initiation early in life was the norm of the day and certainly not unique to the tantras. In India, the ancient norm-setting law books (smṛtiśāstras), which remained authoritative throughout the entire Indian phase of Vajrayāna Buddhism, were concerned not so much with the youngest age at which sexual activity was permissible, but rather with the oldest before which the girl must become sexually active in order not to miss her first opportunity to conceive. One law book warns of consequences if this opportunity is missed: “When she reaches twelve…, the forefathers (pitṛ) of the girl who has not yet been given in marriage will themselves drink her menstrual discharge every month” (Parāśarasmṛti, 7:5–6). Another book concurs: “A girl who sees her own menstrual blood in her father’s house shall be known as an outcaste” (Viṣṇusmṛti, 24:41). The purpose of the sexual act as espoused in different literary genres may have varied (from the reproductive in the smṛtiśāstras to the soteriological in the Yoga- and Yoginītantras), but the early sexual initiation is evidenced throughout the whole spectrum of Indian literature. That said, one must add that the age most often recommended by the tantras was actually not twelve but sixteen; this is paralleled by the age of the deity forms visualized during the sādhana.

i.16The sexual practices, however, are far from being the only content of the CMT, which is varied and rich. This tantra aims to be a guide, complete in itself, which takes care of both our soteriological and mundane needs. Since the CMT includes all the standard elements of a classical Buddhist tantra of the later period, it may be unnecessary to describe, or even list, all these elements here. Instead a brief mention of some of its salient features might be of benefit. (For a full list of topics, please consult the chapter headings in the contents section.)

i.17One such feature is the exalted position of women. This thread, present throughout the text, starts from the premise that the man and the woman are deities‍—Caṇḍa­mahā­roṣaṇa and Vajra­dhātvīśvarī, respectively‍—and both should worship each other as such. The text, however, dwells on the service rendered by a man to a woman, rather than the other way around. The woman is the one who grants the ultimate beatitude and the final awakening, and she is the one who deserves infinite gratitude and devout service. This may be best illustrated by a quotation:

i.18The word used for “service” is sevā, which in Sanskrit means “attending to” (as a servant would to a master). It also means “sexual intercourse,” which‍—being in itself a form of service‍—here takes a ritualized form. Again a quotation summarizes it all:

i.19The content of the CMT thus ranges from soteriological, through magical (which combines soteriological and mundane elements), to practical. Consequently the text becomes, in turn, a manual of deity practice with its development (utpatti) and completion (utpanna) stages, a compendium of magical practices comprising the four types of tantric (not necessarily “enlightened”) activity, and a do-it-yourself manual offering instruction on various practical subjects, some as mundane as waterproofing cloth or dying one’s hair. Among the different types of magic, prominence is given to the rites of enthrallment (vaśīkaraṇa); and among the magical remedies, to those enhancing sexual experience during lovemaking. The CMT is also a rich source of materia medica; it contains a wealth of ritual prescriptions and recipes in which magic blends with folk medicine.

i.20The plant names and other materia medica presented a particular difficulty during the translation work. There are discrepancies between the traditional sources as regards plant names, and sometimes several plant species contend for the same name. Modern scholars of āyurveda or ethnobotany do not always agree among themselves concerning the correct identification of some plants. A certain amount of care was taken, however, to identify every plant by the names found in the Sanskrit and the Tibetan texts. A number of reference works and specialized websites were consulted, but, needless to say, not all the plants and substances have been identified reliably, and some could not be identified at all. Some passages in the sections containing such recipes still remain unclear.

i.21The mantras and dhāraṇīs have been translated, for the most part, as they often take the form of a request or a prayer, and their semantic content is usually related to the ritual in which they are employed. This particularly applies to the longer formulae, such as garland mantras or dhāraṇīs. However, because they are meant to be recited in their original Sanskrit form, which is believed to possess liturgical and magical significance, their full Sanskrit text has been given in notes. Translation of these formulae, again, presented a problem, and the reader should note that many words that are not standard Sanskrit have not been identified with certainty, and some have not been identified at all.

i.22Technical Sanskrit terms that do not have English equivalents have either been translated descriptively, or the original term was used with a link to the glossary. As the ritual jargon of the tantras is often incompatible with modern English in terms of semantics and usage, the reader will find that certain English words in our translation have been used in a somewhat unconventional way. For example, in our translation the direct object of the verb to incant can be not only the mantra but also, just as in Old English, the object over which the spell or the mantra is to be recited. Although there is a significant precedent for this particular usage in modern English, in genres ranging from academic works to the Harry Potter novels, this could still seem “incorrect” to many readers.

i.23As already mentioned, the CMT includes instructions that are not intended as spiritual per se. Among the methods of the do-it-yourself type, the tantra distinguishes a special category that it refers to as kutūhala, that is, “curious” or “odd.” As this name suggests, these methods‍—such as setting a cow bone ablaze, making things glow at night, or causing iron to appear as copper‍—might have been included in the tantra because of their curiosity rather than their practical value. Obtaining the necessary requisites for some of these practices might require killing animals or performing other acts conventionally regarded as unwholesome. A few of these practices might appear, by society’s norms, as frivolous, if not gratuitously harmful. These “odd” elements are, however, neither unique to the CMT (many tantras include a chapter or section devoted to them), nor do they purport to be part of this tantra’s main message. The aim and purpose of the CMT’s profound teachings lies in the realization of nondual awareness through the practice of the four joys. As such its unique beauty is in the love and devotion experienced in the union of the two partners‍—the wisdom and the means .