As expressed in the Sanskrit and translated literally into Tibetan, the term means “to dwell near.” The term comes from the older Vedic traditions in which during full moon and new moon sacrifices, householders would practice abstinence in various forms such as fasting and refraining from sexual activity. These holy days were called upavasatha days because it was said that the gods that were the recipients of these sacrifices would “dwell” (√vas) “near” (upa) the practitioners of these sacrifices. While sacrificial practices were discarded by Buddhists, the framework of practicing fortnightly abstinence evolved into the poṣadha observance, and in fact the term poṣadha is etymologically related to the term upavasatha. See Dutt (1962), p. 73.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).In this sūtra it is notable that Dīrghanakha does not initially show respect to the Buddha and refers to him using a more neutral register, “renunciant Gautama,” until his conversion at the end of the sūtra (1.­24), when he then uses the epithet “Blessed One.”

There are many references in the sūtras to a pleasant fragrance that is the result of moral discipline. Although it is not stated in these exact words, this description echoes some of the eighty excellent signs (asītyānuvyañjana), a subset of the 112 physical characteristics of both buddhas and cakravartins. For example, the list found in the Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Toh 11, 2.33) describes these signs: “(34) Their body is immaculate and without unpleasant odors”; and (later down the list) “(40) The pores of their body all emit a pleasant odor.”

Although not stated in precisely the same words, this description echoes some of the eighty excellent signs (asītyānuvyañjana), a subset of the 112 physical characteristics of both buddhas and cakravartins. For example, the list found in the Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Toh 11, 2.33) describes these signs: “(15) Their body is well proportioned. (16) Their senses are completely purified. (17) Their understanding is perfectly pure.” And further down the list it reads “(36) Their [sense faculties]‍—the ‘gates to the sense fields’‍—are excellent.”

A brahmin disciple of the Buddha. Also known as Koṣṭhila, Kauṣṭhila, Mahākauṣṭhila, and Agnivaiśyāyana. See introduction, i.­4.

To refrain from (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) sexual misconduct, (4) lying or divisive speech, (5) intoxication, (6) eating at inappropriate times, (7) entertainment such as singing, dancing, seeing shows, and beautifying oneself with adornments or cosmetics, and (8) using a high bed. See introduction (i.­2).

The Buddha is said to have long and webbed fingers and toes. This is one of the signs included in the thirty-two signs of a great being; sometimes “long” and “webbed” are listed as two separate signs.

Having “forty even and white teeth” is included in the thirty-two signs of a great being. Depending on the list, this sign is often divided into two separate signs of having “forty teeth” and having “white teeth.” In the Sanskrit parallel of The Questions of Dīrghanakha the Wandering Mendicant, this quality is described as having “very beautiful and very bright teeth” (suśobhana­dantaḥ sudīpta­dantaḥ).

The fourfold saṅgha comprises monks, nuns, and female and male lay practitioners.

Having the “gait of a lion” is included in the list of the eighty excellent signs (asītyānuvyañjana), a subset of the 112 physical characteristics of both buddhas and cakravartins.

The family name of the historical Buddha. Gautama means “descendant of Gotama,” while his clan name, Gotama, means “Excellent Cow.” When the Buddha is addressed as Gautama in the sūtras, it typically implies that the speaker does not share the respect of his disciples, who would rather refer to him as the “Blessed One” or another such epithet.

The materialist or “worldly” school, one of the many schools of the Indian śramaṇa movement around at the time of the Buddha. Today most of their literature and discourse has been lost, but their view can be compiled through secondary historical literature and the voices of their critics. According to this, they are claimed to have asserted a rigid materialist philosophy in which everything in the universe is composed of only four elements (earth, water, heat, and air). They rejected the moral causality associated with karma, and they rejected transmigration or rebirth. For more on the Lokāyata philosophy, see Chattopadhaya (1992), pp. 22–75.

The ceremony performed every new and full moon day by monastics, in which they confess any faults or transgressions and recite the prātimokṣa. It also refers to the one-day practice adopted by lay people in which they practice restraint according to the eight poṣadha vows and which may also include fasting. See introduction (i.­2).

The uṣṇīṣa, described in this text as “raised” (Skt. unnata) is one of the most prominent of the thirty-two signs of a great being and is often placed first or last in the list. In its simplest form it is an elevated shape of the head, like a turban (the Sanskrit term uṣṇīṣa in fact means “turban”), or more elaborately a dome-shaped extension. The extension is described as having various magical attributes such as emitting and absorbing rays of light or reaching such an immense height that the gods are incapable of flying over it.

Literally “King’s House,” this was the capital city of Magadha ruled by King Bimbisāra. It is currently the modern-day city of Rajgir in Bihar, North India.

The Sanskrit term literally means “one who toils,” i.e., an ascetic, and the term is applied to spiritual renunciants or monks, whether Buddhist or otherwise. The Tibetan translation of this term is dge sbyong, meaning “one who trains in virtue.”

An ancient Indian spiritual title, often translated as “sage” or “seer.” The title is particularly used for divinely inspired individuals credited with creating the foundations of Indian culture. The term is also applied to Śākyamuni and other realized Buddhist figures.

For laity this would ostensibly constitute any sexual misconduct such as adultery, molestation, or any conduct seen as perverse or improper (mithyā). Refraining from sexual misconduct is the third of the eight poṣadha vows. However, laity practicing the one-day poṣadha additionally practice celibacy, just as monastics do.

A wandering ascetic, uncle of Śāriputra, whose dialogue with the Buddha is mentioned in the long Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtras.

Essentially meaning to steal. Refraining from stealing or taking what is not given is the second of the eight poṣadha vows.

Thirty-two of the 112 identifying physical characteristics of both buddhas and cakravartins, in addition to the “eighty excellent signs.” There are significant variations found in this list depending on the source.

It is not clear precisely what the three seats are. See n.­35.

Those of other religious or philosophical orders, contemporary with the early Buddhist order, including Jains, Jaṭilas, Ājīvikas, and Cārvākas. Tīrthika (“forder”) literally translates as “one belonging to or associated with (possessive suffix –ika) stairs for landing or for descent into a river,” or “a bathing place,” or “a place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams” (Monier-Williams). The term may have originally referred to temple priests at river crossings or fords where travelers propitiated a deity before crossing. The Sanskrit term seems to have undergone metonymic transfer in referring to those able to ford the turbulent river of saṃsāra (as in the Jain tīrthaṅkaras, “ford makers”), and it came to be used in Buddhist sources to refer to teachers of rival religious traditions. The Sanskrit term is closely rendered by the Tibetan mu stegs pa: “those on the steps (stegs pa) at the edge (mu).”

This description is in reference to one of the thirty-two signs of a great being. In some lists of the signs, this one is simply described as having a long and slender tongue, but in others it is explained that the tongue is capable of reaching anywhere on the face up to the hairline.

A non-Buddhist seer, the main interlocutor in The Victory of the Ultimate Dharma (Toh 246).

The body of the Buddha is like an indestructible vajra. While the term vajrakāya has specialized meaning in a tantric context, it is unlikely that such meaning is applicable here. In the Chinese, the term is translated as a “vajra-like, indestructible solid body” (jin gang bu huai jian gu zhi shen 金剛不壞堅固之身).

The famous bamboo grove near Rājagṛha where the Buddha regularly stayed and gave teachings. It was situated on land donated by King Śreṇya Bimbisāra of Magadha and, as such, was the first of several landholdings donated to the Buddhist community during the time of the Buddha. Kalandaka­nivāpa means “feeding place of the kalandakas,” where kalandaka could refer to a flying squirrel or bird, as explained by differing sources.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

Literally, “one who wanders around.” An umbrella term for the class of wandering religious ascetics of diverse religious persuasions who were common at the time of the Buddha.