A class of celestial female beings known for their great beauty.

Jasminum sambac according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

A class of beings constantly in conflict with the gods.

Musa paradisiaca according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Aegle mermelos, also known as Indian bael or wood apple.

Syzygium cumini according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.

Name of an apsaras.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

A member of the highest caste in Indian society, which is most closely associated with religious vocations.

A location in the country of Trigarta.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

Michelia champaca according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

A nāga lady from a previous time.

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda.

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda.

Ficus Glomerata according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Jasminum grandiflorum according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

Large political formations, either republics or kingdoms, of ancient India.

Acaia catechu according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

A monk from a previous eon.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

Jasminum multiflorum according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Name of a nāga lady of a former time.

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

This list of eight nāgas is probably unique to this sūtra. They are Tawny, Scent, Watery, Wrathful, Staircase to Heaven, Staircase to a Vase, Nearby Nāga, and Oḍasuta.

This list of eight yakṣa ladies is probably unique to this sūtra. They are Aśiḍi, Many Sons, Hanging Down, Fully Hanging, Terrible, Fierce Lady, Small Club Holder, and Sky Dweller.

This list of eight nāga ladies may be unique to this sūtra. They are Darkness, Eager to Leave, Seer, Cool, Load Carrying, Speech Strewing, Universal Army, and Gandharva Lady.

Lists of the generals of the yakṣas are frequent in Buddhist scripture. They can variously consist in five, eight, twelve, or twenty-eight yakṣas. The list of names given here appears to be unique to this sūtra. They are Siṅgala, Dharma Protector, Successful, Victorious , Bull Ear, Jewel Ear, Dharma Endowed , and Uplifted by Dharma .

Limonia acidissima according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

Name of a nāga lady from a previous eon.

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

Name of the present eon, in which the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas appear.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

Presumably this list consists of the six forms of superknowledge without knowledge of the destruction of the defiled.

Vaiśravaṇa (Kubera), Virūḍhaka, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, and Virūpākṣa.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

One of the eight nāga ladies.

An elongated, shoulder-held wooden bar (or beam) struck with a wooden stick to call the monastic community to assembly.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The name of a nāga lady.

A forest located in modern-day Punjab where a community of Buddhist monks flourished.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

Ficus benghalensis according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Modern-day Jalandhar of the Punjab region.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

One of the first Buddhist monasteries, located in a park outside Śrāvastī, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kośala in northern India. This park was originally owned by Prince Jeta, hence the name Jetavana, meaning Jeta’s grove. The wealthy merchant Anāthapiṇḍada, wishing to offer it to the Buddha, sought to buy it from him, but the prince, not wishing to sell, said he would only do so if Anāthapiṇḍada covered the entire property with gold coins. Anāthapiṇḍada agreed, and managed to cover all of the park except the entrance, hence the name Anāthapiṇḍadasyārāmaḥ, meaning Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. The place is usually referred to in the sūtras as “Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park,” and according to the Saṃghabhedavastu the Buddha used Prince Jeta’s name in first place because that was Prince Jeta’s own unspoken wish while Anāthapiṇḍada was offering the park. Inspired by the occasion and the Buddha’s use of his name, Prince Jeta then offered the rest of the property and had an entrance gate built. The Buddha specifically instructed those who recite the sūtras to use Prince Jeta’s name in first place to commemorate the mutual effort of both benefactors. Anāthapiṇḍada built residences for the monks, to house them during the monsoon season, thus creating the first Buddhist monastery. It was one of the Buddha’s main residences, where he spent around nineteen rainy season retreats, and it was therefore the setting for many of the Buddha’s discourses and events. According to the travel accounts of Chinese monks, it was still in use as a Buddhist monastery in the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, but by the sixth century it had been reduced to ruins.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

The name of the venerable Pradarśa’s father.

A former buddha in this eon.

A former buddha of this eon.

A king during the life of the previous Buddha Vipaśyin.

Identified as Citraratha throughout mythological literature.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

A former buddha of this eon.

One of the four classes (Skt. varṇas) of ancient Indian society, responsible for political and military affairs.

A type of supernatural being commonly mentioned along with yakṣas, rākṣasas, piśācas, and so on.

Glycyrrhiza glabra according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

Name of a monk from a previous eon.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

A set of caves in the Gloomy Forest.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

The central region of ancient India. Although the precise boundaries of the region are variously defined, a common description (found, for instance, in the Baudhāyana­sūtra), describes the region as bordered by the Himālayas to the north, the Vindhya mountains to the south, Vinaśana to the west, and Prayāga to the east.

A dwelling place of monks.

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda.

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

A mountain at the northern tip of the Middle Country, located in modern-day Punjab.

Pradarśa’s brother.

One of the eight great nāgas.

One of the eight great nāgas.

Equivalent to Albizia lebbeck according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

Ficus religiosa according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

The eminent monk who brought the Buddhist community to the Gloomy Forest.

A structure for worship in which relics of a buddha are stored.

The name of a nāga lady from a previous eon.

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

One of the eight great nāgas.

A monk of a previous buddha. If the Tibetan transliteration is correct, this name is probably not of Sanskrit origin.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

Name of a monk from a previous eon.

A monk of a previous buddha.

A buddha from a previous eon.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

The divine eye (Skt. divyacakṣus), divine ear (Skt. divyaśrotra), recollection of previous births (Skt. pūrva­nivāsānu­smṛti), knowledge of other minds (Skt. paracittajñāna), knowledge of the destruction of the defiled (Skt. āsrava­kṣayajñāna), and [knowledge of] superpowers (Skt. ṛddhi).

The six great cities of the Middle Country are frequently mentioned in Buddhist literature. The Mahā­parinirvāṇa­sūtra lists them as Śrāvastī, Sāketa, Campā, Vārāṇasī, Vaiśālī, and Rājagṛha.

This likely refers to perception (Skt. pratyakṣa), inference (Skt. anumāna), comparison (Skt. upamāna), testimony (Skt. śabda), nonperception (Skt. anupalabdhi), and inference from circumstances (Skt. arthāpatti).

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

During the life of the Buddha, Śrāvastī was the capital city of the powerful kingdom of Kośala, ruled by King Prasenajit, who became a follower and patron of the Buddha. It was also the hometown of Anāthapiṇḍada, the wealthy patron who first invited the Buddha there, and then offered him a park known as Jetavana, Prince Jeta’s Grove, which became one of the first Buddhist monasteries. The Buddha is said to have spent about twenty-five rainy seasons with his disciples in Śrāvastī, thus it is named as the setting of numerous events and teachings. It is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh in northern India.

One of the eight great nāgas.

One of the eight great nāgas.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

A three-month period during the monsoon season during which monks remain in a single abode.

One of the eight great nāgas.

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

The three myrobalan plants: chebulic myrobalan (Skt. harītakī), beleric myrobalan (Skt. vibhītaka), and emblic myrobalan (Skt. āmalakī).

A king of the Trigarta Jālandhara region.

The name of a country once located in the Punjab region, frequently mentioned in epic and purāṇic literature.

Stereospermum colais according to the Pandanus Database of Plants. This appears to be the best option for what the Tibetan reads; however, the readings pa ti li and pa ti’i shing both appear corrupt.

Name of a nāga lady.

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

One of the eight nāga ladies.

A monk of a previous buddha.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

The name of a monastery

Vetiveria zizanioides according to the Pandanus Database of Plants. The Tibetan rendering u shi sha is almost certain a corruption for uśīka.

A nāga lady from a former time.

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.

A buddha in a previous eon.

A buddha in a previous eon.

One of the eight great nāgas.

A person who has accomplished the final fruition of the path of the hearers and is liberated from saṃsāra.

One of the eight great nāgas.

Leaders of armies of yakṣas.