Introduction

Ākāśagarbha, the Bodhisattva “Essence of Space”

i.1Ākāśagarbha features among the so-called Eight Close Sons of the Buddha, who are regarded as the principal bodhisattvas in the Buddha’s retinue, the other seven being Mañjuśrī, Avalokiteśvara, Vajrapāṇi, Kṣitigarbha, Sarva­nivaraṇa­viṣkambhin, Maitreya, and Samantabhadra. Each bodhisattva fulfills a particular role for the benefit of beings, Ākāśagarbha’s being that of helping them to purify themselves from the results of their negative actions.

i.2The name Ākāśagarbha may be rendered in English as “Essence (garbha) of Space (ākāśa).” To understand his name, it is useful to consider the concept of space in Buddhist thought. In early Buddhist theory, space is nonobstruction, the lack of matter allowing for the unhindered movement of the four great elements of earth, water, fire, and air. Space is also nonobstructible due to its omnipresence and its eternal nature. Apart from being the mere absence of obstruction, it is also counted as one of the three unconditioned dharmas or phenomena in this world, the other two being the two types of cessation. In the Pāli Mahāparinibbānasutta, space is presented as the actual foundation for all other elements of existence. We can understand, therefore, the prominent position that space holds among the elements of existence, and it is an equally prominent position that the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha holds among his peers, his presence outshining everything else in the world, everything except the buddhas themselves. Just as space is the unlimited capacity to accommodate the entirety of phenomenal existence, so Ākāśagarbha possesses countless inconceivable qualities to benefit sentient beings. As the embodiment of nonobstruction, he helps beings remove obstacles from the path to awakening, in particular the obstacles caused by their own misdeeds, by making them disclose their transgressions.

i.3Due to his relation to space and the purification of negative deeds, Ākāśagarbha has become closely associated with the Buddha Vairocana, one of the principal figures in the Buddhist tantric traditions, whose main function is the purification of negativities in general, and in particular those of the deceased. It is particularly in the tantric traditions of China and Japan that Ākāśagarbha has become an important figure of worship.

The Text of the Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra

i.4In his work on Ākāśagarbha in China and Japan (unfortunately unfinished), M. W. de Visser gives a comprehensive list of texts related to this bodhisattva. The first among them to appear in Chinese was the Sūtra on the Bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, translated by Buddhayaśas between 403 and 413 ᴄᴇ. This is the earliest version of the text we have, for the Sanskrit is no longer extant.

The Chinese version of this text differs significantly from the Tibetan translation found in the Kangyur. Although the basic content of both texts is the same, their structures are very different and the Chinese contains numerous passages not found in the Tibetan, and vice versa. It is justifiable, therefore, to speak of two different versions of the Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra.

i.5The Tibetan text was prepared by the Indian paṇḍita Śākyaprabha and the Tibetan Bandé Ratnarakṣita, probably in the 9th century ᴄᴇ. But even though the Kangyur contains only one Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra, we do have alternative translations of some of its passages. The Śikṣāsamuccaya by Śāntideva, of which the Sanskrit has survived as well as its translation into Tibetan, quotes extensively from the sūtra.

Key Points of the Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra

i.6The sūtra is widely known in the Tibetan Buddhist community, at least by name. This stems from the fact that it is mentioned in Śāntideva’s celebrated and widely studied Bodhi­caryāvatāra (Tib. byang chub sems pa’i spyod pa la ’jug pa). In the fifth chapter on “Guarding Alertness,” Śāntideva advises the reader to study the sūtras, beginning with the Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra, in order to learn about the training.

i.7The Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra is a Mahāyāna sūtra that emphasizes spiritual practice. It thus can be said to have a strong affinity with the so-called meditative concentration Mahāyāna sūtras, of which the Śūraṃgama­samādhi­sūtra is a prominent representative. Our text indeed repeatedly mentions the meditative concentration of valiant progress (Skt. śūraṃgama­samādhi) of the bodhisattvas abiding on the tenth bodhisattva ground. Furthermore, in the discussion of the transgressions of beginner bodhisattvas, among other corrupt habits the confinement of monks’ practice to the mere recitation of scriptures is criticized.

i.8The main topic of this sūtra, however, is not meditation but faith in and devotion to a bodhisattva as a means of purification. Because the principal activity of Ākāśagarbha, as mentioned above, is the removal of obstructions on the path to awakening, followers are strongly advised to generate pure faith in him. It is this faith, supported by the devotional practices of worship and offering, that will invoke his presence and blessings. Once invoked, the bodhisattva will help devotees according to their capacities and inclinations by first making them disclose their negative actions.

i.9This practice of disclosure or confession of negative deeds is regarded as a fundamental element of Buddhist practice. Essential for the purification of the mind, it forms the third part of the seven-limbed practice, a preliminary practice recited daily by most practitioners in the Tibetan tradition. The seven limbs are paying homage to the buddhas, presenting them with offerings, disclosing one’s negative deeds, rejoicing in the positive deeds of all beings, requesting the Dharma, supplicating the enlightened ones to remain with us, and dedicating all virtues to the benefit of sentient beings.

i.10But what precisely are those negative actions that are to be disclosed by the followers of the Buddha? In this sūtra, the Buddha himself gives the answer to this question: they are the transgressions (Tib. ltung ba; Skt. āpatti), also referred to as downfalls . The so-called downfalls are violations of vows or principles of conduct specific to different kinds of Buddhist followers. In Buddhism, vows are forms of spiritual commitment taken to ensure steady progress on the path. They are the “practical applications and outcomes of different Buddhist theories.” Thus, transgressions are not actions judged as morally objectionable by some higher authority; rather, they are actions of body, speech, and mind that result in a serious impediment on the spiritual path of the one who commits them. They cause one to “fall from” the path to awakening, so to speak, and in the worst cases fall to the lower realms of existence. These transgressions need to be disclosed and purified at the very outset of the path, and helping people do so is precisely the expertise of Ākāśagarbha.

i.11An individual enters the Mahāyāna when he or she produces bodhicitta, the resolve to attain buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. Thus, the first step in the training is the production of this intention, called the bodhicitta of aspiration , which is later followed by active engagement in the path, called applied bodhicitta . In the detailed explanation of the training in applied bodhicitta found in Sakya Paṇḍita’s Elucidation of the Sage’s Intent (thub pa dgongs gsal), the author explains the cause of its arising, the way to cultivate the conditions conducive to its increase, and the methods for preventing its decline. It is in the latter section that he names the Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra as a source for the fundamental transgressions . In the sūtra, these are the transgressions committed by kṣatriyas, ministers, śrāvakas, and beginner bodhisattvas. This entire list, excluding the śrāvakas’ transgressions, became a prominent feature of the Mahāyāna training known as the fourteen fundamental trans‌gressions. As the text is commonly studied in all Tibetan Buddhist schools, authors of all lineages refer to the Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra as the source for understanding the bodhisattva transgressions.

i.12The sūtra mentions the following list of transgressions:

1. Stealing from a place of worship or the saṅgha, or inciting others to do so

2. Forcing others to give up the Dharma and creating obstacles for the teachings

3. Forcing monastics to give up their monastic robes and abusing them

4. Committing any of the five heinous deeds

5. Advocating the philosophy of the nonexistence of causality

1. Stealing from a place of worship or the saṅgha

2. Destroying a village, district, or town

3. Forcing others to give up the Dharma and creating obstacles for the teachings

4. Harming monastics by taking away their robes, punishing, or even killing them

5. Committing any of the five heinous deeds

1. Killing

2. Taking what is not given

3. Impure conduct

4. Lying

5. Harming a buddha

1. Teaching the profound Dharma of emptiness to spiritually immature people

2. Discouraging people from practicing the Mahāyāna path

3. Discouraging people from practicing the vinaya of the prātimokṣa

4. Disparaging the śrāvaka path, saying it obstructs one from attaining enlightenment and from eradicating the afflictions

5. Praising oneself and lying out of jealousy and for the sake of gain and honor

6. Deceiving others, claiming one has realized the profound teachings on emptiness when one has not

7. Causing fines to be imposed on monastics and offering the bribes received to the kṣatriyas

8. Causing monastics to abandon their contemplative training and diverting offerings intended for contemplative monastics to benefit monastics engaged in mere recitation practice

i.13A special feature of this sūtra, and quite a unique one, is the mention of dream-inducing practices. Similar practices are known to students of Tibetan Buddhism familiar with the techniques commonly known as dream yoga, but they are fairly rare in nontantric Mahāyāna contexts. In this context, the purpose of dream-inducing practice is for those who failed to meet Ākāśagarbha in the waking state to produce a dream encounter with the bodhisattva in order to disclose their transgressions.

i.14Finally, another recurring theme throughout this sūtra is the use of dhāraṇīs . This term has at least two distinct meanings in this text alone: on the one hand, a mystical formula to be repeated with the aim of fulfilling certain worldly and spiritual wishes, whether for oneself or others, and, on the other, a state of unfailing memory that bodhisattvas attain on the higher levels of realization. But the mention of dhāraṇīs does not imply an influence of tantric Buddhism on this text. Dhāraṇīs are used frequently in early Mahāyāna scriptures predating the emergence of tantra in Buddhism.

Conclusions

i.15The Ākāśa­garbha­sūtra can be understood as a devotional Mahāyāna text, devotion being a skillful means on the path to awakening in Buddhism. The text was eminently important in China and Japan, where the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha became a major figure of veneration, and in the Tibetan tradition, where it served as a primary source for the list of bodhisattva transgressions. The sūtra predates the emergence of the tantric Buddhist movement in India, but nevertheless contains certain elements that gained in importance and were further developed in Vajrayāna Buddhism.

Ākāśagarbha is the essence, the womb of space. Limitless, he provides beings with whatever they need; knowing no obstacles, he removes whatever may hinder them from seeing reality.

The Translation

i.16For this work, the translators relied on the version in the Degé Kangyur, supported by those in the Peking and Narthang Kangyurs with the help of the comparative edition of the Kangyur (see bibliography). Whenever confronted with problematic or difficult passages, we discussed the variants with the Tibetan scholars we worked with to select the reading most likely to be correct.

i.17The task of translation inevitably coincides with the task of interpretation, and any translation will be only one of the possible readings of the text. In this case, the task was rendered difficult by the many obscure and somewhat esoteric verses the sūtra contains. With the resources at our disposal, we have tried our best to understand and translate those lines; but the clarity we have aimed for in the resulting English verses does not reflect the ambiguous nature of the Tibetan text, cryptic in many places. We apologize for all instances where we did not do it justice.

i.18Specialized terminology, such as the types of beings present in the Buddha’s audience as well as certain technical terms, is given in Sanskrit when we thought that no English rendering would convey the exact meaning. The Tibetan version of the sūtra also contains a number of dhāraṇīs in transliterated Sanskrit, and like the Tibetan translators we have left them as they are. In the process of trying to reconstruct their most correct Sanskrit reading, we faced many problems despite the assistance of a Sanskrit expert. Solving them would entail a separate research project, well beyond the scope of the present translation work.