A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

One of the eight great bodhisattvas, his name means “Essence of Space.”

The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.

Literally “Unfailing Vision.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A nāga king whose domain is Lake Anavatapta. According to Buddhist cosmology, this lake is located near Mount Sumeru and is the source of the four great rivers of Jambudvīpa. It is often identified with Lake Manasarovar at the foot of Mount Kailash in Tibet.

One of the six root afflictions (Skt. mūlakleśa), often listed as one of the three poisons (Skt. triviṣa) along with attachment (Skt. rāga) and delusion (Skt. moha).

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

One of the six root afflictions (Skt. mūlakleśa), often listed as one of the three poisons (Skt. triviṣa) along with anger (Skt. dveṣa) and delusion (Skt. moha).

First appeared as a bodhisattva beside Amitābha in The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī (Sukhāvatīvyūha, Toh 115). The name has been variously interpreted. In its meaning as “The Lord of Avalokita,” avalokita has been interpreted as “seeing,” although, as a past passive participle, it is literally “what has been seen.” One of the principal sūtras in the Mahāsāṅghika tradition was the Avalokita Sūtra, which has not been translated into Tibetan, in which the word is a synonym for enlightenment, as it is “that which has been seen” by the buddhas. In the early tantras, he was one of the lords of the three families, as the embodiment of the compassion of the buddhas. The Potalaka Mountain in South India became important in Southern Indian Buddhism as his residence in this world, but Potalaka does not feature in The Basket’s Display ( Kāraṇḍavyūha , Toh 116), which is the most important sūtra dedicated to Avalokiteśvara.

Literally “King of Medicine.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

The collection of the Mahāyāna teachings.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).Also used in this text as a shorthand for Brahmaviśeṣacintin, the main interlocutor in this discourse.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

One of the eleven virtuous mental factors (Tib. sems byung dge ba; Skt. kuśalacaitta), a subgroup of the mental states or factors associated with the mind (Skt. caitasika, caitta), according to the Abhidharma. According to Vasubandhu (in his Pañcaskandhaka) , ngo tsha (“scruples,” “conscience”) is different from khrel (“embarrassment”) in that it is independent from others’ judgment of one’s behavior and solely internal in that it comprises one’s internalized values and one’s inner moral compass or sense of integrity.

Eighth of the twelve links of dependent origination. Craving is often listed as threefold: craving for the desirable, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence.

An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He was a frequent collaborator of Yeshé Dé.

One of the three poisons (Skt. triviṣa) along with attachment (Skt. rāga) and anger (Skt. dveṣa).

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

Literally “Holder of the Earth.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

The equality of all phenomena in their nature of emptiness.

Literally “without an interval,” meaning that the result of these actions is rebirth in hell at the very instant of death. The five are killing one’s mother, killing one’s father, killing an arhat, causing a schism in the saṅgha, or maliciously drawing blood from a buddha.

These comprise (1) the eye of flesh, (2) the eye of divine clairvoyance, (3) the eye of wisdom, (4) the eye of the sacred doctrine, and (5) the eye of the buddhas.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

The assemblies of monks (Skt. bhikṣu) and nuns (Skt. bhikṣuṇī), along with laymen (Skt. upāsaka) and laywomen (Skt. upāsikā).

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

The fundamental form of ignorance (Skt. avidyā) that is the root cause of suffering in cyclic existence.

The king of the garuḍas present at this discourse.

The path of a bodhisattva is divided into ten stages of spiritual attainment called grounds. The eleventh ground corresponds to complete awakening.

One of the four hands of bodhisattvas, the other three being the hands of faith, discipline, and learning. See The Fourfold Accomplishment (Catuṣkanirhāra, Toh 252), 1.34.

One of the six classes of sentient beings engendered by anger and powerful negative actions. They are dominated by great suffering and said to dwell in different hells with specific characteristics.

A number calculated by multiplying a koṭi (bye ba), or ten million, by a niyuta (khrag khrig), or a hundred billion according to the Abhidharma system (although it is only one million in Classical Sanskrit), and by a śatasahasra (brgya stong), or one hundred thousand, all of which together equals ten to the twenty-third power or a hundred sextillion. This term is often used to express a number so large as to be inconceivable.

First of the twelve links of dependent origination and one of the six root afflictions (Skt. mūlakleśa).

Literally “Bearer of the World.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A mythical river (flowing out of Lake Anavatapta at the enter of Jambudvīpa) whose gold is believed to be especially fine.

Jinamitra was invited to Tibet during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (khri srong lde btsan, r. 742–98 ᴄᴇ) and was involved with the translation of nearly two hundred texts, continuing into the reign of King Ralpachen (ral pa can, r. 815–38 ᴄᴇ). He was one of the small group of paṇḍitas responsible for the Mahāvyutpatti Sanskrit–Tibetan dictionary. He is also the author of the Nyāyabindupiṇḍārtha (Toh 4233), which is contained in the Tengyur (bstan ’gyur).

One of the twenty auxiliary afflictions (Skt. upakleśa) derived from ignorance.

One of the five hindrances to cultivating concentration (Skt. samādhi).

This term has three meanings: (1) the ultimate nature, (2) the experience of the ultimate nature, and (3) the quiescent state of a worthy one (arhat) to be avoided by bodhisattvas.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A senior bhikṣu student of the Buddha Śākyamuni, famous for his austere lifestyle.

One of the eight great bodhisattvas who serves alongside Avalokiteśvara as Amitābha’s attendant in the buddhafield of Sukhāvatī. As his name suggests, he is renowned for possessing (Skt. prāpta; Tib. thob pa) great strength and power (Skt. mahāsthāma; Tib. mthu chen). In Tibetan Buddhism, he is identified with Vajrapāṇi, though they are separate bodhisattvas in the sūtras.

In Sanskrit “The Benevolent One”; the name of the bodhisattva who became Śākyamuni’s regent and is prophesied to be the next buddha, the fifth buddha in the fortunate eon. In early Buddhism he appears as the human disciple Maitreya Tiṣya, sent to pay his respects by his teacher. The Buddha gives him the gift of a robe and prophesies he will be the next buddha, while his companion Ajita will be the next universal monarch. As one of the eight great bodhisattvas in the Mahāyāna, he has both these names. He is said to currently reside in the Tuṣita heaven awaiting the proper time to take his final rebirth.

Literally “Crown Jewel.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

Along with Śāradvatīputra, one of the Buddha Śākyamuni’s two main bhikṣu disciples, renowned as foremost in miraculous powers and endeavor. His family clan was descended from Mudgala, hence his name Maudgalyāyana (The Son of Mudgala’s Descendants).

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

The god of the moon; the moon personified.

An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

Literally “King of Lunar Mansions.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

Another name for the Brahmanical god Viṣṇu.

Literally “Consummate Eloquence.” A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

The Buddha Śākyamuni’s son, he became the first novice monk and a prominent member of his monastic saṅgha.

Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar, Rājagṛha, literally “Royal City,” was the capital of the kingdom of Magadha during the Buddha’s lifetime. Nearby is Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), where the Buddha is said to have taught the Prajñāpāramitā and other teachings.

The name of a mythical island or group of islands full of jewels, to which residents of Jambudvīpa attempted voyages to find their fortunes.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

More commonly known as Indra, the deity who is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu (“one who has performed a hundred sacrifices”): he is said to have become the lord of the gods through performing the horse sacrifice, which was the highest Vedic sacrifice. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra, so this sūtra mentions them in the plural.

One of the eight great bodhisattvas, he figures strongly in The Stem Array (Toh 44-45; Gaṇḍavyūha, the final chapter of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra) and in The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, Toh 113). Not to be confused with the primordial buddha in the Nyingma tradition.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

One of the eight great bodhisattvas, his name literally means “Remover of Hindrances.” He plays an important role in The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, Toh 113), in which the Buddha Śākyamuni sends him to Vārāṇasī to see Avalokiteśvara. This is paralleled in The Basket’s Display ( Kāraṇḍavyūha , Toh 116), in which he is sent to Vārāṇasī to obtain Avalokiteśvara’s mantra.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

Literally “Extremely Attractive.” The lord of the gandharvas present at this discourse.

The god of the sun; the sun personified.

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

A nāga king who is well known from his role in the Indian Mahābhārata epic. He dwells in the northwestern city of Taxila (Takṣaśilā) in present-day Pakistan.

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

The two views of (1) eternalism (nityānta), the belief in a permanent, causeless creator and/or the belief in an independent, permanent, singular self; and (2) nihilism (ucchedānta), the belief that things ultimately do not exist and/or the denial of the law of cause and effect or of past and future lives.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

One of the Four Great Kings, he presides over the northern quarter and rules over the yakṣas. He is also known as Kubera, and is regarded as a wealth deity.

A nāga king. Varuṇa is also the name of one of the oldest of the Vedic gods and associated with the water and the ocean.

Literally “Distinctive Thinker.” A great bodhisattva who is the main interlocutor in this discourse. Also referred to as Brahmaviśeṣacintin and Mahābrahmaviśeṣacintin in The Questions of Brahmaviśeṣacintin (Brahmaviśeṣacintiparipṛcchā, Toh 160).

A great bodhisattva present at this discourse.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

Refers to any world or group of worlds illumined by one sun and moon, with its own Mount Meru, continents, desire, form, and formless realms, etc.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than 160 sūtra translations and more than 100 additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with widely teaching both sūtra and tantra to students of his own.