The Buddha’s teachings regarding subjects such as wisdom, psychology, metaphysics, and cosmology.

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

Indra’s elephant.

The nectar of immortality possessed by the gods (deva). It is frequently used as a metaphor for the teachings that brings liberation.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

A nāga king.

Lit. “Unobstructed.” One of the ten great śrāvaka disciples, famed for his meditative prowess and superknowledges. He was the Buddha's cousin‍—a son of Amṛtodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana‍—and is often mentioned along with his two brothers Bhadrika and Mahānāma. Some sources also include Ānanda among his brothers.

In many formulations, there are four modes of mindfulness: mindfulness of the body, sensations, mind, and phenomena. In this text there are six additional modes of the application of mindfulness: the mindfulness of recollecting the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, discipline, giving, and divinties.

Eighth of the ten perfections, the formulation of one’s intentions and commitments regarding the path to awakening.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

An optional set of thirteen practices that monastics can adopt in order to cultivate greater detachment. They consist of 1) wearing patched robes made from discarded cloth rather than from cloth donated by laypeople; 2) wearing only three robes; 3) going for alms; 4) not omitting any house while on the alms round, rather than begging only at those houses known to provide good food; 5) eating only what can be eaten in one sitting; 6) eating only food received in the alms bowl, rather than more elaborate meals presented to the Saṅgha; 7) refusing more food after indicating one has eaten enough; 8) dwelling in the forest; 9) dwelling at the root of a tree; 10) dwelling in the open air, using only a tent made from one’s robes as shelter; 11) dwelling in a charnel ground; 12) satisfaction with whatever dwelling one has; and 13) sleeping in a sitting position without ever lying down.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.One of the “eight close sons of the Buddha,” he is also known as the bodhisattva who embodies compassion. In certain tantras, he is also the lord of the three families, where he embodies the compassion of the buddhas. In Tibet, he attained great significance as a special protector of Tibet, and in China, in female form, as Guanyin, the most important bodhisattva in all of East Asia.

A king of horses.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

There are typically four bases of miraculous power: determination, discernment, diligence, and meditative concentration.

See “true state of things.”

These basic precepts are five in number for the laity: (1) not killing, (2) not stealing, (3) chastity, (4) not lying, and (5) avoiding intoxicants. For monks, there are three or five more; avoidance of such things as perfumes, makeup, ointments, garlands, high beds, and afternoon meals. (Provisional 84000 definition. New definition forthcoming.)

Fourth of the four formless dhyānas.

A range of mountains in Jambudvīpa.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

The ten levels or stages traversed by a bodhisattva that culminate in buddhahood: (1) Joyful (pramuditā; rab tu dga’ ba), (2) Stainless (vimalā; dri ma med pa), (3) Luminous (prabhākarī; ’od byed pa), (4) Radiant (arciṣmatī; ’od ’phro can), (5) Invincible (sudurjayā; shin tu sbyang dka’ ba), (6) Facing Directly (abhimukhī; mngon du gyur), (7) Far-Reaching (dūraṅgamā; ring du song ba), (8) Immovable (acalā; mi g.yo ba), Auspicious Intellect (sādhumatī; legs pa’i blo gros), and (10) Cloud of Dharma (dharmameghā; chos kyi sprin).

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

The first of the seventeen heavens of the form realm; also the name of the gods living there. In the form realm, which is structured according to the four concentrations and pure abodes‍‍, or Śuddhāvāsa, it is listed as the first of the three heavens that correspond to the first of the four concentrations.

The four qualities that are said to result in rebirth in the heaven of Brahmā: limitless love, compassion, rejoicing, and equanimity. The term can also refer to the resultant states. This formulation was already prevalent in India before Śākyamuni’s teaching on them.

A member of the highest of the four castes in Indian society, which is closely associated with religious vocations.

There are seven branches of awakening: mindfulness, discrimination, diligence, joy, pliancy, absorption, and equanimity.

The tenth bodhisattva bhūmi.

This patience is an acceptance of the true nature of things. It is a patience that is in accord with the nature of phenomena.

The capacity of realized beings to speak in a confident and inspiring manner.

Consciousness is generally classified into the five sensory consciousnesses and mental consciousness. Fifth of the five aggregates and third of the twelve links of dependent origination.

Literally, “to flow” or “to ooze.” Mental defilements or contaminations that “flow out” toward the objects of cyclic existence, binding us to them. Vasubandhu offers two alternative explanations of this term: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Avīci hell, out of the six wounds that are the sense fields” (Abhidharma­kośa­bhāṣya 5.40; Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The Summit of Existence (bhavāgra, srid pa’i rtse mo) is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called Avīci (mnar med) is the lowest; the six sense fields (āyatana, skye mched) here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal sense fields.

Lit. “to shape/form/create,” the term refers to volitional activity that creates karmic patterns and results.

See “contrive.”

The abandonment of nonvirtuous mental states and resultant actions of body, speech, and mind, and the cultivation of virtuous mental states and resultant actions of body, speech, and mind. This set is often interpreted as “right exertions,” reflecting the Skt. term samyakpradhāṇa, rather than samyakprahāṇa, which is the basis for the Tibetan term yang dag par spong ba.

Correct and accurate discernment, typically in regard to four sets of factors: phenomena, meaning, language, and confident eloquence.

A term meaning defilement, impurity, and pollution, broadly referring to cognitive and emotional factors that disturb and obscure the mind. As the self-perpetuating process of affliction in the minds of beings, it is a synonym for saṃsāra. It is often paired with its opposite, vyavadāna, meaning “purification.”

The relative nature of phenomena, which arise in dependence on causes and conditions. Together with the four truths of the noble ones, this was one of the first teachings given by the Buddha.

A term that is essentially synonymous with deva, “god.” See the entry for “god.”

The term dhāraṇī has the sense of something that “holds” or “retains,” and so it can refer to the special capacity of practitioners to memorize and recall detailed teachings. It can also refer to a verbal expression of the teachings‍—an incantation, spell, or mnemonic formula‍—that distills and “holds” essential points of the Dharma and is used by practitioners to attain mundane and supramundane goals. The same term is also used to denote texts that contain such formulas.

Sometimes translated “truth body,” “reality body,” or “body of qualities,” the term dharmakāya stands in distinction to the rūpakāya, or “form body” of a buddha. In its earliest uses the term refers to the Buddha’s qualities as a collective whole, or to his teachings as the embodiment of him. It now primarily indicates the eternal, imperceivable realization of a buddha and is synonymous with the true nature of reality.

Specific states of meditative stability related to the form and formless realms. Remaining in these meditative states can cause one to be reborn into these realms, and the states themselves also seem to have a spatial correlation to the form and formless realms. In this way there are eight progressive dhyānas: the first four correspond to the form realm and the latter correspond to the formless realms.

The fourth of the six or ten perfections, this refers to a state of mind characterized by joyful persistence when engaging in virtuous activity.

Morally virtuous or disciplined conduct and the abandonment of morally undisciplined conduct of body, speech, and mind. Second of the six or ten perfections.

The ability to see all forms whether they are near or far, subtle or gross; also the ability to see the births and deaths of sentient beings. This ability is also included among the higher cognitions.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

“Eight domains of mastery over the senses” is a classic formula describing the process of stabilizing the mind through meditation. They are divided by form (attractive, unattractive, limited, and unlimited) and color (blue, yellow, red, and white).

A series of progressively more subtle states of meditative realization or attainment. There are several presentations of these found in the canonical literature. One of the most common is as follows: (1) One observes form while the mind dwells at the level of the form realm. (2) One observes forms externally while discerning formlessness internally. (3) One dwells in the direct experience of the body’s pleasant aspect. (4) One dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite space by transcending all conceptions of matter, resistance, and diversity. (5) Transcending the sphere of infinite space, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite consciousness. (6) Transcending the sphere of infinite consciousness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of nothingness. (7) Transcending the sphere of nothingness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception. (8) Transcending the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception, one dwells in the realization of the cessation of conception and feeling.

Hoping for happiness, fame, praise, and gain, and fearing suffering, insignificance, blame, and loss.

These are typically enumerated as (1) inner emptiness, (2) outer emptiness, (3) inner and outer emptiness, (4) the emptiness of emptiness, (5) great emptiness, (6) the emptiness of ultimate reality, (7) the emptiness of the compounded, (8) the emptiness of the uncompounded, (9) the emptiness of what transcends limits, (10) the emptiness of no beginning and no end, (11) the emptiness of nonrepudiation, (12) the emptiness of a basic nature, (13) the emptiness of all dharmas, (14) the emptiness of its own mark, (15) the emptiness of not apprehending, (16) the emptiness of a nonexistent thing, (17) the emptiness of an intrinsic nature, and (18) the emptiness that is the nonexistence of an intrinsic nature.

A monk with senior status in the monastic community.

One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements: eye and form, ear and sound, nose and smell, tongue and taste, body and physical objects, and mind and mental phenomena, to which the six consciousnesses are added. Also refers here to the four elements of earth, water, fire, and wind.

Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

The third of four cyclic eons that make up a great eon, this is the cosmic period in which the universe undergoes its slow collapse into nothingness.

The first of four cyclic eons that make up a great eon, this is the cosmic period in which our universe is created following the eon of nothingness.

An even state of mind characterized by the lack of disturbance and pleasure, where one wishes neither to be separated from nor to approach an object.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

A god and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

Denotes the whole of existence, i.e., the five forms of life or the three planes of existence‍—all the possible kinds and places of karmic rebirth. It is also the tenth of the twelve links of dependent origination (often translated as “becoming”).

The totality of things as they really are. A synonym for the ultimate nature of reality.

Cognitive faculties; the five senses plus mental faculty.

The second of the five aggregates: pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral feelings as a result of sensory experiences.

The final five hundred years that the Buddha’s teachings remain accessible in the world.

This refers to what occurs at the end of an arhat’s or a buddha’s life. When nirvāṇa is attained at awakening, whether as an arhat or buddha, all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence have ceased, but due to previously accumulated karma, the aggregates of that life remain and must still exhaust themselves. It is only at the end of life that these cease, and since no new aggregates arise, the arhat or buddha is said to attain parinirvāṇa, meaning “complete” or “final” nirvāṇa. This is synonymous with the attainment of nirvāṇa without remainder (anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa). According to the Mahāyāna view of a single vehicle (ekayāna), the arhat’s parinirvāṇa at death, despite being so called, is not final. The arhat must still enter the bodhisattva path and reach buddhahood (see Unraveling the Intent, Toh 106, 7.14.) On the other hand, the parinirvāṇa of a buddha, ultimately speaking, should be understood as a display manifested for the benefit of beings; see The Teaching on the Extraordinary Transformation That Is the Miracle of Attaining the Buddha’s Powers (Toh 186), 1.32. The term parinirvāṇa is also associated specifically with the passing away of the Buddha Śākyamuni, in Kuśinagara, in northern India.

The five aggregates (skandha) of form (rūpa), sensation (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), karmic formations (saṃskāra), and consciousness (vijñāna). They are referred to as the “bases for clinging” (upādāna) insofar as all conceptual grasping arises on the basis of these aggregates.

The first of the five aggregates: the subtle and coarse forms derived from the primary material elements.

The meaning of this term varies according to context. As one of the aggregates, it refers to various mental activities. In terms of the twelve phases of dependent origination, it is the second, “formation” or “creation,” referring to activities with karmic results.

The assemblies of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.

Fearlessness in declaring that one has (1) awakened, (2) ceased all illusions, (3) taught the obstacles to awakening, and (4) shown the way to liberation.

According to The Absorption of the Miraculous Ascertainment of Peace, Toh 129 (g.­74) these are truth, giving, peace, and insight.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The first of the six or ten perfections, often explained as the essential starting point and training for the practice of the others.

One of five types of instructors identified by the Buddha, referring to someone who offers shelter, support, and instruction, even if only temporarily.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

A complete cosmogonic cycle that includes four intermediate eons: the eon of formation (vivartakalpa; chags pa’si bskal pa), the eon of stability (vivartasthāyi­kalpa; gnas pa’i bskal pa), the eon of dissolution (saṃvartakalpa; ’jig pa’i bskal pa), and the eon of nothingness (saṃvartasthāyi­kalpa; stong pa’i bskal pa).

In The Dharma Council, the world system in which the bodhisattva Nirārambha is prophesied to become the Buddha Great Light.

The name of the future buddha the bodhisattva Nirārambha is prophesied to become in The Dharma Council.

When the Buddhist teachings are classified according to their power to lead beings to an awakened state, a distinction is made between the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle (Hīnayāna), which emphasizes the individual’s own freedom from cyclic existence as the primary motivation and goal, and those of the Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna), which emphasizes altruism and has the liberation of all sentient beings as the principal objective. As the term “Great Vehicle” implies, the path followed by bodhisattvas is analogous to a large carriage that can transport a vast number of people to liberation, as compared to a smaller vehicle for the individual practitioner.

Karmic traces or residues imprinted by past actions that manifest as tendencies predisposing one to particular patterns of behavior.

The highest of the six heavens of the desire realm, its inhabitants enjoy objects created by others.

The paradise of Indra, also known as Śakra, on the summit of Sumeru, where there are thirty-three leading deities, hence the name “thirty-three.” The second (counting from the lowest) of the six heavens in the desire realm.

The higher modes of cognition that result from meditative concentration. They are traditionally listed in a set of five or six. The set of five consists of divine sight, divine hearing, knowing the minds of others, recalling previous lives, and the performing of miracles. The sixth higher cognition is the cognition that exhausts contaminants.

The activity of imputing characteristics to things that they do not possess. A paradigmatic case in Buddhism is the imputation of a singular, self-existent, enduring self to the transient bundle of aggregates that make up a person.

The sixth of the six or ten perfections, this refers to the profound understanding of the emptiness of all phenomena, the realization of ultimate reality.

A cosmic period of time. Following the Abhidharma system, eighty intermediate eons together compose one great eon (mahākalpa).

A divine river whose gold is believed to be especially fine.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A term used to exemplify exceptional softness. The term is found in the Skt. compounds kācalindika­praveṇī and kācalindika­pravāra, which suggest a type of fabric. This understanding is supported by Tibetan and Chinese sources, which often include a term for cloth or clothing in translation (ka tsa lin di ka’i gos; 細錦衣).

In Buddhist literature refers to a mythical bird whose call is said to be far more beautiful than that of all other birds, and so compelling that it can be heard even before the bird has hatched. The call of the kalaviṅka is thus used as an analogy to describe the sound of the discourse of bodhisattvas as being far superior to that of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, even before bodhisattvas attain awakening. In some cases, the kalaviṅka also takes on mythical characteristics, being depicted as part human, part bird. It is also the sixteenth of the eighty designs on the palms and soles of a tathāgata.While it is equated to an Indian bird renowned for its beautiful song, there is some uncertainty regarding the identity of the kalaviṅka; some dictionaries declare it to be a type of Indian cuckoo (probably Eudynamys scolopacea, also known as the asian koel) or a red and green sparrow (possibly Amandava amandava, also known as the red avadavat).

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. One of the Buddha’s principal śrāvaka disciples, known for ascetic practice. He became the leader of the saṅgha after the Buddha’s passing.

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. One of the ten principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha. He was renowned for his ability to understand the Buddha’s teachings.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

One of the four classes of ancient Indian society, responsible for political and military affairs.

An early stage in a bodhisattva’s career during which they have developed a degree of conviction that is not yet informed by direct experience. The level of dedicated conduct is said to comprise the first two of the five paths, those of accumulation and preparation, which lead up to the path of seeing.

Name of the fourth level of realization attainable by bodhisattvas, equivalent to entering the stream to nirvāṇa.

This commonly refers to being liberated from the obscurations of afflictive emotions and the obscurations of meditative attainment. The Skt. term can also be interpreted to mean “liberated through the two factors,” in which the two factors are meditative stability ( dhyāna ) and insight (prajñā). In this latter case, the term reflects a tension within the Indian Buddhist community regarding the value of scholarly knowledge and meditative experience alone or in combination.

This term has three meanings: (1) the ultimate nature, (2) the experience of the ultimate nature, and (3) the quiescent state of a worthy one (arhat) to be avoided by bodhisattvas.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

One of the five trees of Indra’s paradise, its heavenly flowers often rain down in salutation of the buddhas and bodhisattvas and are said to be very bright and aromatic, gladdening the hearts of those who see them. In our world, it is a tree native to India, Erythrina indica or Erythrina variegata, commonly known as the Indian coral tree, mandarava tree, flame tree, and tiger’s claw. In the early spring, before its leaves grow, the tree is fully covered in large flowers, which are rich in nectar and attract many birds. Although the most widespread coral tree has red crimson flowers, the color of the blossoms is not usually mentioned in the sūtras themselves, and it may refer to some other kinds, like the rarer Erythrina indica alba, which boasts white flowers.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

A translator of canonical texts.

The deities ruled over by Māra, who attempted to prevent the Buddha’s enlightenment. They are also symbolic of the defects within a person that prevent awakening. These are traditionally four in number: the “divine māra” (devaputramāra; lha’i bu’i bdud) who embodies the distraction of pleasures; the “māra of death” (mṛtyumāra; ’chi bdag gi bdud); the “māra of the aggregates” (skandhamāra; phung po’i bdud); and the “māra of the afflictive emotions” (kleśamāra; nyon mongs pa’i bdud).

A reference to the materialist doctrines espoused by the Lokāyatas, an ancient Indian school that only accepted the direct evidence of the senses and rejected the existence of a creator deity and other lifetimes.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, paired with Śāriputra. He was renowned for his miraculous powers. His family clan was descended from Mudgala, hence his name Maudgalyāyana, “the son of Mudgala’s descendants.”

One of the synonyms for the meditative state, in terms of both the state itself and the various meditative states that serve as attainments along the path.

One of the basic forms of Buddhist meditation that focuses on calming the mind. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being meditative insight (vipaśyanā; lhag mthong).

A state of deep concentration in which the mind is absorbed in its object to such a degree that conceptual thought is suspended. It is sometimes interpreted as settling (āhita) the mind in equanimity (sama).

An important form of Buddhist meditation focusing on developing insight into the nature of phenomena. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being śamatha, “calm abiding”.

The fifth of the six or ten perfections, the term refers to the ability of the mind to remain undistracted in a state free of afflicted mental states. See also the entry for “dhyāna.”

A general term applied to spiritual practitioners who live as ascetic mendicants. In Buddhist texts, the term usually refers to Buddhist monastics, but it can also designate a practitioner from other ascetic/monastic spiritual traditions. In this context śramaṇa is often contrasted with the term brāhmaṇa (bram ze), which refers broadly to followers of the Vedic tradition. Any renunciate, not just a Buddhist, could be referred to as a śramaṇa if they were not within the Vedic fold. The epithet Great Śramaṇa is often applied to the Buddha.

This is the faculty that enables the mind to maintain its attention on a referent object, counteracting the arising of forgetfulness, which is a great obstacle to meditative stability. The root smṛ may mean “to recollect” but also simply “to think of.” Broadly speaking, smṛti, commonly translated as “mindfulness,” means to bring something to mind, not necessarily something experienced in a distant past but also something that is experienced in the present, such as the position of one’s body or the breath.Together with alertness (samprajāna, shes bzhin), it is one of the two indispensable factors for the development of calm abiding (śamatha, zhi gnas).

Typically a set of five: the ability to replicate one’s body and dissolve that replica, the ability to pass through solid objects, the ability to walk on water, the ability to fly, and the ability to touch the sun and moon with one’s hand.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

An alternate name of the Brahmanical deity Viṣṇu.

The four attainments corresponding to the form realm, the four formless absorptions, and the attainment of the state of cessation.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

The Sanskrit ārya has the general meaning of a noble person, one of a higher class or caste. In Buddhist literature, depending on the context, it often means specifically one who has gained the realization of the path and is superior for that reason. In particular, it applies to stream enterers, once-returners, non-returners, and worthy ones (arhats) and is also used as an epithet of bodhisattvas. In the five-path system, it refers to someone who has achieved at least the path of seeing (darśanamārga).

Best known by the equivalent Pali term kasiṇa or kasiṇāyatana, this term refers to a set of ten objects of meditative contemplation used to induce deep meditative stability ( dhyāna ), to the mental image born from that contemplation, and to the resultant meditative stability. The ten meditative objects are the elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space; the colors blue, yellow, red, and white; and consciousness. In some lists, “consciousness” is replaced with “light.”

The obscurations to liberation and omniscience. They are generally categorized as two types: affective obscurations (kleśāvaraṇa), the arising of afflictive emotions; and cognitive obscurations (jñeyāvaraṇa), those caused by misapprehension and incorrect understanding about the nature of reality. The term is used also as a reference to a set five hindrances on the path: longing for sense pleasures (Skt. kāmacchanda), malice (Skt. vyāpāda), sloth and torpor (Skt. styānamiddha), excitement and remorse (Skt. auddhatyakaukṛtya), and doubt (Skt. vicikitsā).

The third of the six or ten perfections, patience is classified into three kinds: the patience to tolerate abuse from sentient beings, to tolerate hardships on the path to buddhahood, and to tolerate the profound nature of reality. Also translated as “acceptance.”

The mental processes of recognizing and identifying the objects of the five senses and the mind. Third of the five aggregates.

This term is used to refer to the main trainings of a bodhisattva. Because these trainings, when brought to perfection, lead one to transcend saṃsāra and reach the full awakening of a buddha, they receive the Sanskrit name pāramitā, meaning “perfection” or “gone to the farther shore.” They are listed as either six or ten.

The physical, visible body of a buddha, as opposed to their body of qualities ( dharmakāya ; chos sku). It is often further categorized into two: the emanation body (nirmāṇakāya; sprul sku), the body that is visible to all beings, and the enjoyment body (sambhogakāya; longs spyod sku), which is visible only to bodhisattvas of sufficient realization.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

In The Dharma Council, the eon in which the bodhisattva Nirārambha is prophesied to become the Buddha Great Light.

The vows and regulations that constitute the foundation of Buddhist discipline. The number and scope of the vows differ depending on one’s status (lay, novice monastic, or full monastic) and whether one is female or male.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

The vehicle comprising the teaching of the pratyekabuddhas.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. One of the ten principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was the greatest in the ability to teach the Dharma.

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. Son of Siddhārtha Gautama, who, when the latter attained awakening as the Buddha Śākyamuni, became a monk and eventually one of his foremost disciples.

The Sanskrit pravrajyā literally means “going forth,” with the sense of leaving the life of a householder and embracing the life of a renunciant. When the term is applied more technically, it refers to the act of becoming a male novice (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or female novice (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma), this being a first stage leading to full ordination.

Two factors that are essential for progressing on the path and reaching awakening: the requisite of merit and the requisite of wisdom.

A nāga king.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

The name of a samādhi that is considered one of the main samādhis of a bodhisattva. This samādhi is described in The Sūtra on the Samādhi of Valiant Progress (Toh 132; forthcoming).

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.

The subsidiary afflictive emotions that arise in dependence upon the six root afflictive emotions (attachment, hatred, pride, ignorance, doubt, and wrong view); they are (1) anger (krodha, khro ba), (2) enmity/malice (upanāha, ’khon ’dzin), (3) concealment (mrakśa, ’chab pa), (4) outrage (pradāsa, ’tshig pa), (5) jealousy (īrśya, phrag dog), (6) miserliness (matsarya, ser sna), (7) deceit ( māyā , sgyu), (8) dishonesty (śāṭhya, g.yo), (9) haughtiness (mada, rgyags pa), (10) harmfulness (vihiṃsa, rnam par ’tshe ba), (11) shamelessness (āhrīkya, ngo tsha med pa), (12) non-consideration (anapatrāpya, khril med pa), (13) lack of faith (aśraddhya, ma dad pa), (14) laziness (kausīdya, le lo), (15) non-conscientiousness (pramāda, bag med pa), (16) forgetfulness (muśitasmṛtitā, brjed nges), (17) non-introspection (asaṃprajanya, shes bzhin ma yin pa), (18) dullness (nigmagṇa, bying ba), (19) agitation (auddhatya, rgod pa), and (20) distraction (vikṣepa, rnam g.yeng) (Rigzin 329, 129).

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

A class of nonhuman beings renowned for their magical powers. In this usage, siddhas are not to be confused with the human adepts who bear the same title.

The ultimate absence of marks and signs in perceived objects. One of the three gateways to liberation.

An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

Forms, sounds, smells, tastes, textures, and mental objects.

The seventh of the ten perfections, this refers to the skillful acts of a bodhisattva that benefit others and lead to awakening.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

The vehicle comprising the teaching of the śrāvakas.

The first level of attainment on the path of the śrāvakas when one enters the “stream” of practice that leads to nirvāṇa.

Ninth of the ten perfections, this refers to the special powers wielded by a bodhisattva on the path to awakening. In this context the meaning of the term is distinct from bala/stobs in regard to the five or ten powers.

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. One of the ten great śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha Śākyamuni, known for his profound understanding of emptiness. He plays a major role as an interlocutor of the Buddha in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.

The quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms.

The fourth and lowest of the classes in the Indian caste system, this generally encompasses the laboring class.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

In Buddhist cosmology, the mountain at the center of a world system surrounded by the four continents.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

In Sanskrit literally “a thread,” this is an ancient term for teachings that were memorized and orally transmitted in an essential form. Therefore, it can also mean “pithy statements,” “rules,” and “aphorisms.” In Buddhism it refers to the Buddha’s teachings, whatever their length. It is one of the three divisions of the Buddha’s teachings, the other two being Vinaya and Abhidharma. It is also used in contrast with the tantra teachings, though a number of important tantras have sūtra in their title. It is also classified as one of the nine or twelve aspects of the Dharma, in which context sūtra means “a teaching given in prose.”

According to The Ten Bhūmis, these ten terms (1.­100 or phrases express the culmination of the ten aspirations (praṇidhāna; smon lam). They are the factors (dhātu; khams) of (1) beings, (2) worlds, (3) space, (4) phenomena, (5) nirvāṇa, (6) the appearance of buddhas, (7) the wisdom of thus-gone ones, (8) mental referents, 9) the accomplishment of wisdom, and (10) the continuity of words, the Dharma, and wisdom.

Powers attained by bodhisattvas on the path: power over life, karma, possessions, conviction, aspiration, miracles, birth, Dharma, mind, and wisdom. Not to be confused with the ten strengths (bala, stobs), which are qualities of buddhahood.

The ten strengths of thus-gone one are (1) the knowledge of what is possible and not possible; (2) the knowledge of the ripening of karma; (3) the knowledge of the variety of dispositions or abilities; (4) the knowledge of the variety of natures; (5) the knowledge of the levels of capabilities; (6) the knowledge of the destinations of all paths; (7) the knowledge of dhyāna, liberation, samādhi, samāpatti, and so on; (8) the knowledge of remembering past lives; (9) the knowledge of deaths and rebirths; and (10) the knowledge of the cessation of defilements. In The Dharma Council, the order of the third and fourth strengths is reversed.

According to this text, the ten truths are: conventional truth, ultimate truth, the truth of characteristics, the truth of classification, the truth of discernment, the truth of entities, the truth of capacity, the truth of knowing exhaustion and nonarising, the truth of knowing the entry point to the path, and the truth of the source of all of the wisdom of the thus-gone-ones. See 1.­153.

Abstaining from killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying, uttering divisive talk, speaking harsh words, gossiping, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views.

The main identifying physical characteristics of both buddhas and universal monarchs, to which are added the so-called “eighty minor marks.”

This can refer to the underworlds, the earth, and the heavens, or it can indicate the desire, form, and formless realms.

The three realms that contain all the various kinds of existence in saṃsāra: the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.

Training in higher discipline, higher intention, and higher insight.

In this text, the three types of knowledge are divine sight, recollecting past lives, and exhausting the defilements. In other lists, “divine sight” is replaced with “presaging death.”

The heavens, earth, and underworlds.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

May refer to a specific genre or style of scholastic literature, or simply to scholastic literature in general. In contrast to scriptural genres like the sūtras, tantras, and so forth, this term is generally applied to works composed by human authors, and can be on either spiritual or secular topics.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

The four truths that the Buddha realized: suffering, origin, cessation, and path. They are named “truths of noble beings” since only “noble beings” with knowledge of reality can understand them.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

The obscurations of afflictive emotions (nyon mongs pa’i sgrib pa) and the obscurations of meditative attainment (snyoms par ’jug pa’i sgrib pa).

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

An interlocuter in The Dharma Council. A great upholder of monastic discipline, who recited the vinaya at the First Council following the Buddha’s passing.

The title of a specialist in the Buddhist canon who focuses on upholding the lists of enumerations of key Buddhist tenets.

A variety of sandalwood. The name means “snake essence” because snakes were said to live in the forests of those trees because they were attracted to their scent.

One of the thirty-two signs, or major marks, of a great being. In its simplest form it is a pointed shape of the head like a turban (the Sanskrit term, uṣṇīṣa, in fact means “turban”), or more elaborately a dome-shaped extension. The extension is described as having various extraordinary attributes such as emitting and absorbing rays of light or reaching an immense height.

One of the Four Great Kings, he presides over the northern quarter and rules over the yakṣas. He is also known as Kubera.

The third of the four classes in the Indian caste system. It generally includes the merchants and farmers.

Vajrapāṇi means “Wielder of the Vajra.” In the Pali canon, he appears as a yakṣa guardian in the retinue of the Buddha. In the Mahāyāna scriptures he is a bodhisattva and one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha.” In the tantras, he is also regarded as an important Buddhist deity and instrumental in the transmission of tantric scriptures.

Meaning those who wield (dhara) spells (vidyā), the term can be used to refer to both a class of supernatural beings who wield magical power and human practitioners of the magical arts. The later Buddhist tradition, playing on the dual valences of vidyā as “spell” and “knowledge,” began to apply this term more broadly to realized figures in the Buddhist pantheon.

Heedful attention to virtuous qualities.

A translator of canonical texts.

A bodhisattva and interlocuter in The Dharma Council.

The vows and texts pertaining to monastic discipline.

Three aspects of the nature of phenomena that when contemplated and integrated lead to liberation. The three are emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness.

As the tenth of the ten perfections, the term refers to the realization of emptiness and the state of omniscience.

The ultimate absence of any wish, desire, or aspiration, even those directed toward buddhahood. One of the three gateways to liberation.

A class of guardian deities, usually presiding over the quarters of the world. This often refers to the Four Great Kings.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

A standard measure of distance used in ancient India. The term literally means “yoking” or “joining,” and refers to the distance a yoked ox can travel before needing to be unyoked. Sources calculate the exact distance variably, somewhere between four and ten miles (six to sixteen km).