In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

The progressive increase of virtuous karma. One of the two factors that come together in creating momentum toward a practitioner’s spiritual awakening, the other being the accumulation of wisdom.

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

The five psycho-physical components of personal experience: form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.

A follower of a non-Buddhist mendicant movement founded by Makkhali Gosāla (fifth century ʙᴄᴇ). The Ājīvikas adhered to a fatalist world-view according to which all beings eventually reach spiritual accomplishment by fate, rather than their own actions.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

An inhabitant of an uncivilized borderland where the Dharma has not been propagated.

A precious stone frequently used in Buddhist analogies.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.

A stage of progress on the spiritual path, especially one of the ten stages of the Great Vehicle path of cultivation.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

One of seven qualities cultivated on the path of seeing: mindfulness, discernment, diligence, joy, ease, absorption, equanimity.

A realm manifested by a buddha or advanced bodhisattva through the power of their great merit and aspirations.

In Buddhist cosmology, a ring of iron mountains said to exist at the periphery of a world system.

In Buddhist usage, a general term for non-Buddhist religious mendicants, paired with parivrājaka in stock lists of followers of heretical movements.

Composed of constituent parts, whether physical or temporal; dependent on causes.

The defilements of causality and emotional states the perpetuate our experience of saṃsāra.

A statement of clear and explicit meaning that has no ulterior motive and thus does not require further explanation.

The embodiment of evil, anti-spiritual forces.

One of the three realms of saṃsāra, it is comprised of the traditional six realms of saṃsāra, from the hell realm to the realm of the gods, including the human realm. Rebirth in this realm is characterized by intense cravings via the five senses and their objects.

The term dhāraṇī has the sense of something that “holds” or “retains,” and as such can refer to the special capacity of practitioners to memorize and recall detailed teachings. It can also refer to a verbal expression of the teachings‍—an incantation, spell, or mnemonic formula that distills and “holds” essential points of the Dharma and is used by practitioners to attain mundane and supramundane goals. The same term is also used to denote texts that contain such formulae.

A state of mind characterized by joyful persistence when engaging in virtuous activity.

Controlled behavior in accordance with an ethical code of conduct.

Fifth among the branches of perfect awakening (Skt. sambodhyaṅga); a condition of calm, clarity, and composure in mind and body that serves as an antidote to negativity and confers a mental and physical capacity that facilitates meditation and virtuous action.

A person who is eight steps away in the arc of their development from becoming an worthy one (Skt. arhat; Tib. dgra bcom pa). Specifically, this term refers to one who is on the cusp of becoming a stream-enterer (Skt. srotaāpanna; Tib. rgyun du zhugs pa), and is the first and lowest stage in a list of eight stages or classes of a noble person (Skt. āryapudgala). The person at this lowest stage in the sequence is still on the path of seeing (Skt. darśanamārga; Tib. mthong lam), and then enters the path of cultivation (Skt. bhāvanāmārga; Tib. sgoms lam) upon attaining the next stage, that of a stream-enterer (stage 7). From there they progress through the remaining stages of the hearer’s path, becoming in turn a once-returner (stages six and five), a non-returner (stages four and three), and an worthy one (stages two and one). This same “eighth stage” also appears in set of ten stages (Skt. daśabhūmi; Tib. sa bcu) found in Great Vehicle sources, where it is the third step out of the ten. Not to be confused with the ten stages of the bodhisattva’s path, these ten stages mark the progress of one who sequentially follows the paths of a hearer, solitary buddha, and then bodhisattva on their way to complete buddhahood. In this set of ten stages a person “on the eighth stage” is similarly one who is on the cusp of becoming a stream-enterer.

In the context of Buddhist philosophy, one way to describe experience and the world is in terms of eighteen elements (eye, form, and eye consciousness; ear, sound, and ear consciousness; nose, smell, and nose consciousness; tongue, taste, and tongue consciousness; body, touch, and body consciousness; mind, mental phenomena, and mind consciousness).

Inspiration and courage that manifests in particular in one’s endowment with brilliant abilities in oration.

Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

An ancient unit for measuring time; of variable length from several million to billions of years.

The fact that while all phenomena appear differently, they nonetheless share an identical nature.

The antidote to attachment and aversion; a mental state free from bias toward sentient beings.

A state of mental equilibrium derived from deep concentration.

A belief that there is some lasting eternal entity, whether a creator god, eternal substance, etc.

A particular type of pride associated with the unreasonable opinion that one is superior to those with whom one is in fact equal.

One of four unique types of confidence a buddha possesses, which are enumerated in a variety of ways.

In Buddhist cosmology, the sphere of existence one level more subtle than our own (the desire realm), where beings, though subtly embodied, are not driven primarily by the urge for sense gratification. It is one of the three basic divisions of the realms of existence that constitute saṃsāra.

Patterns of karma involved in the perpetuation of conditioned existence; in the scheme of the twelve links of dependent origination, “formations” constitute the second link.

In Buddhist cosmology, the sphere of existence two levels more subtle than our own (the desire realm), where beings are no longer physically embodied, and thus not subject to the sufferings that physical embodiment brings.

Generosity, kind speech, meaningful behavior, and practicing what one preaches.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

An epithet often applied to bodhisattvas.

The fifth of the eight hot hells in the Buddhist classification.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

One of the physical marks of a buddha that takes the form of a hair that is coiled up between the eyebrows.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

Maliciousness, malevolence, vindictiveness.

Describing the result of commiting one of five particularly heinous crimes: (1) killing one’s father, (2) killing one’s mother, (3) killing an arhat, (4) maliciously drawing blood from a buddha, and (5) causing a schism in the sangha.

A term that refers to the activity of superimposition or imputing characteristics to things that they do not possess. A paradigm case in Buddhism is the imputation of a singular, self-existent, enduring self to the transient bundle of skandhas that make up a person.

An important form of Buddhist meditation focusing on developing insight into the nature of phenomena. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being “tranquility” (śamatha).

One of the features of a tathāgata, sometimes included as an additional characteristic of the uṣṇīṣa (q.v.) and sometimes as a separate sign, either within the major and minor marks or in addition to them. Although sometimes explained with the sense almost of a prohibition against looking down on a tathāgata from above, it is more usually linked to the idea that the uṣṇīṣa extends upwards so far that its top is literally out of sight. Its mention in this text relates to the overall stature of a tathāgata, presumably in more than one sense.

Meaning “action” in its most basic sense, karma is an important concept in Buddhist philosophy as the cumulative force of previous physical, verbal, and mental acts, which determines present experience and will determine future existences.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

An ancient unit of measuring distance, calculated differently in various systems but in the range of four to nine modern miles.

See bodhisattva level.

In this context, this refers to a category of advanced meditative attainments.

From Vedic times, the deity who directs the departed into the next realm of rebirth.

“Great Cakravāla,” an epithet for the ring of mountains forming the periphery of a world system in Buddhist cosmology.

An mountain of immense size, or a synonym for Mount Meru.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

An alternate name for Mañjuśrī that includes the epithet “youthful” (kumārabhūta).

Can refer both to a physical mark or trait, as well as the data of perception.

One of the closest disciples of the Buddha, known for his miraculous abilities.

One of the four ways of magnetizing disciples.

This term can mean both physical seclusion and a meditative state of withdrawal.

Positive activity that is conducive to happiness and freedom from suffering; the resulting spiritual momentum that enables one to progress on the path.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

The intent to obtain buddhahood to benefit all sentient beings; the practices intended toward buddhahood; the realization of emptiness.

A positive mental state characterized by recollection of a teaching or object of focus.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

A belief that something may arise without any causes and conditions, that actions have no consequences, etc.

That one has been harmed by an enemy, that one’s loved ones have been harmed, or that one’s enemies have been helped, each in the past, present, or future respectively.

A type of non-Buddhist religious mendicant who eschews clothing and possessions. Often considered another name for the early Jain tradition.

The ‘extinguishing’ of suffering; the state of freedom from the suffering of saṁsāra.

Someone who has entered the “path of seeing,” i.e., who has a direct and stable realization of selflessness, and therefore ceases to be an “ordinary person” and becomes a “noble one.”

A stage in the bodhisattva path where the practitioner will never turn back.

The third level of the noble ones when practicing the path of the hearers, wherein one is bound never to be reborn.

The second level of noble ones when practicing the path of the hearers, wherein one is bound to be born again no more than once.

A non-Buddhist religious mendicant, lit. who “roams around.”

A state of mind of forbearance in the face of a situation that would otherwise provoke anger; one of the six perfections.

To have transcended or crossed to the other side; typically refers to one or more of the six practices of bodhisattvas: generosity, discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom.

One of a list of five qualities cultivated on the first two stages of the path of joining (faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and knowledge). These are similar to the five strengths but in a lesser stage of development.

A set of ten powers attributed to buddhas.

A statement that is context-specific or which which requires further explanation. Contrasted with “definitive meaning.”

The process by which bodhisattvas manifest the realms in which they will enact their awakened activity.

The “sphere of dharmas,” a synonym for the nature of things.

A generic term for the followers of the non-Buddhist religious systems that rivaled Buddhism in India, especially during its foundational period.

Wholesome actions that are conducive to happiness.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

A well-known bodhisattva who often figures in the Great Vehicle teachings.

The continuum of repeated birth and death.

The community followers of the Buddha; the third of the triad that constitute the “Three Jewels,” in which Buddhists take refuge.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

The place where Śakyamuni Buddha achieved awakening and where countless other buddhas are said to have achieved awakening, and will do so in the future. This is understood to be located under the bodhi tree in present-day Bodhgaya, India. In some texts, the term is used to refer to a seat of awakening in other buddha realms.

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

The “Compendium of Training,” in which Śāntideva collects and comments upon citations from the Mahāyāna sūtras. In total, 97 texts are cited, sometimes quite extensively, making this the only available source for the original Sanskrit of many sūtras.

The skillful methods of a bodhisattva, enacted for the benefit of others.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

A personal tutor on spiritual matters; a spiritual guide.

A person who has entered the “stream” of practice that leads to nirvāṇa. The first of the four attainments of the path of the hearers.

One of a list of five qualities cultivated on the higher part of the path of joining (faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and knowledge). These are similar to the five powers but in a higher stage of development.

A monument that contains the relics of a buddha or saint, erected for devotees as an object of veneration and merit-making.

A type of extrasensory perception gained through spiritual practice, in the Buddhist presentation consisting of a list of five types: (1) miraculous abilities, (2) divine eye, (3) divine ear, (4) knowledge of others’ minds, and (5) recollection of past lives.

An Indian paṇḍiṭa resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

The progressive deeping of spritual understanding. One of the two factors that come together in creating momentum toward a practitioner’s spiritual awakening, the other being the accumulation of merit.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One of the basic forms of Buddhist meditation, which focuses on calming the mind. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, with the other technique being “ insight ” (vipaśyana).

Not composed of constituent parts; not dependent on causes.

Having an association with a state of (particularly mental) purity, and as such, not leading to further negativity and / or pain.

Eighteen special features of a buddha’s behavior, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by other beings. They are as follows: (1) he never makes a mistake, (2) he is never boisterous, (3) he never forgets, (4) his concentration never falters, (5) he has no notion of distinctness, (6) his equanimity is not due to lack of consideration, (7) his motivation never falters, (8) his endeavor never fails, (9) his mindfulness never falters, (10) he never abandons his concentration, (11) his insight never decreases, (12) his liberation never fails, (13) all his physical actions are preceded and followed by wisdom (jñāna), (14) all his verbal actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (15) all his mental actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (16) his wisdom and vision perceive the past without any attachment or hindrance, (17) his wisdom and vision perceive the future without any attachment or hindrance, and (18) his wisdom and vision perceive the present without any attachment or hindrance.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

One of the physical marks of a buddha that takes the form of the elevated shape of the crown of his head or an extension rising upwards from it.

An impenetrable substance, used both as a reference to diamond and in particular to the thunderbolt held by the god Indra; also denotes indestructibility.

Refers to any world or group of worlds illumined by one sun and moon, its own Mount Meru, continents, etc.

A person who has accomplished the final fruition of the path of the hearers and is liberated from saṃsāra.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.