A god, king in the Luminous Heaven.

The celestial realm of the Thus-Gone One Akṣobhya in the east.

A synonym for meditation, this refers to the state of deep meditative immersion that results from different modes of Buddhist practice.

According to Edgerton, this is an acceptance “which leads to continued religious progress” (pp. 96–97).

See “five acts of immediate retribution.”

A bodhisattva.

Nāga King Sāgara’s daughter, who in the future will become the Buddha Samantavipaśyin, in the realm of Light .

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

See “five aggregates.”

A bodhisattva.

King of Magadha, son of the king Bimbisāra. As a prince, he befriended Devadatta, who convinced him to kill his father and take the throne for himself. After his father's death he was tormented with guilt and became a follower of the Buddha. He supported the compilation of the Buddha’s teachings during the First Council in Rājagṛha, and also built a stūpa for the Buddha's relics.

Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Stainless Light.

The realm of the Buddha Samantavipaśyin.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

Name of the buddha that Glorious Splendor will become in the world Totally Pure and Stable.

A bodhisattva.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

A nāga king.

Four contemplations on (1) the body, (2) feelings, (3) mind, and (4) phenomena. These four contemplations are part of the thirty-seven factors of awakening.

A nāga king.

An optional set of thirteen practices (with some variations among sources) that monastics can adopt in order to cultivate greater detachment. They consist of (1) wearing patched robes made from discarded cloth rather than from cloth donated by laypeople; (2) wearing only three robes; (3) going for alms; (4) not omitting any house while on the alms round, rather than begging only at those houses known to provide good food; (5) eating only what can be eaten in one sitting; (6) eating only food received in the alms bowl, rather than more elaborate meals presented to the Saṅgha; (7) refusing more food after indicating one has eaten enough; (8) dwelling in the forest; (9) dwelling at the foot of a tree; (10) dwelling in the open air, using only a tent made from one’s robes as shelter; (11) dwelling in a charnel ground; (12) being satisfied with whatever dwelling one has; and (13) sleeping in a sitting position without ever lying down.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

A technical term referring to a meditative state attained through the practice of concentration. Usually a reference to the nine gradual attainments (navānupūrvavihārasamāpatti, mthar gyis gnas pa’i snyoms par ’jug pa dgu) that include the four attainments of the form realm, the four formless attainments, and the attainment of the state of cessation. (The word “attainment” is also used here to translate non-technical words that have the sense of “obtain” or “acquire.”)

One of the “eight close sons of the Buddha,” he is also known as the bodhisattva who embodies compassion. In certain tantras, he is also the lord of the three families, where he embodies the compassion of the buddhas. In Tibet, he attained great significance as a special protector of Tibet, and in China, in female form, as Guanyin, the most important bodhisattva in all of East Asia.

The Dharma king that Rāhu is prophesied to become.

Four types of absorption related respectively to intention, diligence, attention, and analysis.

Head of the “sixteen excellent men” (ṣoḍaśasatpuruṣa), a group of householder bodhisattvas present in the audience of many sūtras. He appears prominently in certain sūtras, such as The Samādhi of the Presence of the Buddhas (Pratyutpannabuddha­saṃmukhāvasthita­samādhisūtra, Toh 133) and is perhaps also the merchant of the same name who is the principal interlocutor in The Questions of Bhadrapāla the Merchant (Toh 83).

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world where other beings consider him the creator; he is also considered to be the Lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two deities (the other being Indra/Śakra) that are said to have first exhorted Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are multiple universes and world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them.

A god.

The heaven of Brahmā, usually located just above the desire realm as one of the first levels of the form realm and equated with the state that one achieves in the first meditative concentration (dhyāna).

Mindfulness, discrimination, diligence, joy, ease, absorption, and equanimity.

A nāga king.

A divine king in the Heaven of Great Fruition.

An epithet of Rāhu.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

A buddha

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Cloud King.

The realm of the Buddha Nārāyaṇa.

The realm of the Buddha Divine King of Brahmā’s Splendor

Relinquishing negative acts in the present and the future and enhancing positive acts in the present and the future.

See “four correct discriminations.”

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

The park in which the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma.

A bodhisattva.

Literally, “to flow” or “to ooze.” Mental defilements or contaminations that “flow out” toward the objects of cyclic existence, binding us to them. Vasubandhu offers two alternative explanations of this term: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Avīci hell, out of the six wounds that are the sense fields” (Abhidharma­kośa­bhāṣya 5.40; Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The Summit of Existence (bhavāgra, srid pa’i rtse mo) is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called Avīci (mnar med) is the lowest; the six sense fields (āyatana, skye mched) here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal sense fields.

The central Buddhist doctrine that relative phenomena arise as a result of causes and conditions.

An incantation, spell, or mnemonic formula that distils essential points of the Dharma and is used by practitioners to attain mundane and supramundane goals. It also has the sense of “retention,” referring to the special capacity of practitioners to memorize and recall detailed teachings.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

A nāga king.

Nāga King Sāgara in a previous life as a universal monarch in the world to the east called Pure View.

A buddha.

The kinnara king Druma is a well-known figure in canonical Buddhist literature, where he frequently appears, mostly in minor roles. For example, King Druma appears in The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Toh 113), where he is one of the four kinnara kings attending the Buddha’s teaching. He is also included in The King of Samādhis Sūtra (Toh 127), where he arrives with his queens to make an offering of his music to the Buddha. He is also a bodhisattva who teaches and displays a profound understanding of the doctrine of emptiness in The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma (Toh 157), where his future awakening is also prophesied by the Buddha.(His name has been translated into Tibetan both as “sdong po” and “ljon pa.”)

A bodhisattva.

See “eightfold path of the noble ones.”

The eight unfavorable conditions for Buddhist practice comprise birth as a hell being, preta, animal, god, barbarian, or a human with wrong views, in a place where there is no buddha, or as a human with impaired faculties.

Hoping for happiness, fame, praise, and gain; and fearing suffering, insignificance, blame, and loss.

Eighteen special features of a buddha’s physical state, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by ordinary beings.

The path leading to the accomplishment of a worthy one, consisting of correct (1) view, (2) intention, (3) speech, (4) action, (5) livelihood, (6) effort, (7) mindfulness, and (8) absorption.

Eighty of the hundred and twelve identifying physical characteristics of both buddhas and universal monarchs, in addition to the so-called “thirty-two marks of a great being.” They are considered “minor” in terms of being secondary to the thirty-two marks.

Commonly designates the eighteen elements of sensory experience (the six sense faculties, their six respective objects, and the six sensory consciousnesses), although the term has a wide range of other meanings. Along with the aggregates and sense sources, it is one of the three major categories in the taxonomy of phenomena in the sūtra literature.

The realm of the Buddha Heart of the Doctrine.

A bodhisattva.

Eternalism is the view that clings to some eternal, truly existent essence called ‘self,’ based on the experience of a collection of, in fact, transitory phenomena.

The realm of the Buddha Siddhārtha.

A god.

A god.

A nāga king.

Thirty-seven practices that lead the practitioner to the awakened state: the four applications of mindfulness, the four correct abandonments, the four bases of miraculous absorption, the five faculties, the five powers, the eightfold path, and the seven branches of awakening.

Refers to the “five faculties” and, more generally, the sense faculties and other capacities of beings.

A nāga king.

A buddha.

Acts for which one will be reborn in hell immediately after death, without any intervening stages; they are killing a worthy one, killing one’s father, killing one’s mother, causing a schism in the monastic community, and maliciously drawing blood from a thus-gone one.

The five aggregates of form, sensation, ideation, formation, and consciousness. On the individual level, the five aggregates refer to the basis upon which the mistaken idea of a self is projected. They are referred to as the “bases for appropriation” (Skt. upādāna) insofar as all conceptual grasping arises based on these aggregates.

The five kinds of eyes possessed by a thus-gone one: the eye of flesh, the divine eye, the eye of Dharma, the eye of insight, and the eye of a buddha.

Faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and knowledge.

Five supernatural faculties that result from meditative concentration: divine sight, divine hearing, knowing the minds of others, recollecting past lives, and the ability to perform miracles.

Faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and knowledge.

The current time period, thus named because a thousand buddhas will manifest during this eon.

The four qualities that are said to result in rebirth in the Brahmā World. They are limitless loving kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity.

The four progressive levels of concentration of the form realm that culminate in pure one-pointedness of mind, and are a requirement for cultivation of the five or six types of higher knowledges, and so on. These are part of the nine gradual attainments.

Four types of effort consisting in abandoning existing negative mind states, abandoning the production of such states, giving rise to virtuous mind states that are not yet produced, and letting those states continue.

The four correct and unhindered discriminating knowledges of the doctrine of Dharma, of meaning, of language, and of brilliance or eloquence. These are the essential means by which the buddhas impart their teachings.

These comprise the attainments of (1) the sense field of infinite space, (2) the sense field of infinite consciousness, (3) the sense field of nothing-at-all, and (4) the sense field of neither perception nor non-perception.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

These are four attitudes and qualities to be cultivated, namely: (1) loving kindness, (2) compassion, (3) empathetic joy, and (4) equanimity. Also known as the four abodes of Brahmā.

The first teaching of the Buddha, covering suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering.

Birth, aging, sickness, and death.

Fearlessness in declaring that one has (1) awakened, (2) ceased all illusions, (3) taught the obstacles to awakening, and (4) shown the way to liberation.

A buddha.

The realm of the Buddha Candrasūrya.

A bodhisattva.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

See “three gateways of liberation.”

A bodhisattva.

Nāga King Sāgara’s son.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

A buddha.

The third heaven of the form realm, it is the highest of the three realms of the first dhyāna heaven.

A nāga king.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

When the Buddhist teachings are classified according to their power to lead beings to an awakened state, a distinction is made between the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle, which emphasizes the individual’s own freedom from cyclic existence as the primary motivation and goal, and those of the Great Vehicle, which emphasizes altruism and has the liberation of all sentient beings as the principal objective. As the term “Great Vehicle” implies, the path followed by bodhisattvas is analogous to a large carriage that can transport a vast number of people to liberation, as compared to a smaller vehicle for the individual practitioner. See also “Lesser Vehicle.”

A bodhisattva.

Another term for the yakṣa subjects of Vaiśravaṇa.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

The realm of the Buddha Ratnaśrī .

A buddha.

The third of the six heavens of the desire realm.

The fifth of the six heavens of the desire realm. Its inhabitants magically create the objects of their own enjoyment.

Twelfth heaven of the form realm, it is the third of the three heavens that make up the fourth dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

The highest of the six heavens of the desire realm, its inhabitants enjoy objects created by others.

Ninth heaven of the form realm, it is the third of the three heavens that make up the third dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

The second heaven of the desire realm, it is found at the top of Mount Meru and is the abode of Śakra and the thirty-three gods.

A god.

The second of the three heavens that are the heavens of the first dhyāna in the form realm.

A category of extrasensory perception gained through spiritual practice, in the Buddhist presentation consisting of five types: miraculous abilities, divine eye, divine ear, knowledge of others’ minds, and recollection of past lives. A sixth, knowing that all defilements have been eliminated, is often added.

The highest of the seventeen heavens in the form realm, the highest of the five Śuddhāvāsa heavens.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

A nāga king.

The realm of the Buddha Immaculate Visage.

A buddha.

The world where the twelve thousand nāgas will reach buddhahood.

A buddha.

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Jeweled Parasol .

A universal monarch.

A bodhisattva.

A nāga king.

The sixth of the six perfections, it refers to the profound understanding of the emptiness of all phenomena, the realization of ultimate reality. It is also one of the five faculties.

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Protector of Glory.

Legendary river carrying the golden fruit fallen from the legendary jambu (“rose apple”) tree. This term is used as an adjective for the gold found in rivers.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

A bodhisattva.

Jinamitra was invited to Tibet during the reign of King Tri Songdetsen (khri srong lde btsan, r. 742–98 ᴄᴇ) and was involved with the translation of nearly two hundred texts, continuing into the reign of King Ralpachen (ral pa can, r. 815–38 ᴄᴇ). He was one of the small group of paṇḍitas responsible for the Mahāvyutpatti Sanskrit–Tibetan dictionary.

A magnolia forest.

One of King Inexhaustible Merit ’s queens.

An Indian bird renowned for its beautiful song. There is some uncertainty regarding the identity of the kalaviṅka, as some dictionaries declare it to be a type of Indian cuckoo (probably Eudynamys scolopacea, also known as the asian koel) or a red and green sparrow (possibly Amandava amandava, also known as the red avadavat). Within the Buddhist sūtras, the bird is usually linked to its pleasing or striking voice. In some cases, it has also taken on mythical characteristics, being described as part human, part bird.

The second buddha of the Fortunate Eon.

A previous buddha.

“One who belongs to the Kuśika lineage.” An epithet of the god Śakra, also known as Indra, the king of the gods in the Trāyastriṃśa heaven. In the Ṛgveda, Indra is addressed by the epithet Kauśika, with the implication that he is associated with the descendants of the Kuśika lineage (gotra) as their aiding deity. In later epic and Purāṇic texts, we find the story that Indra took birth as Gādhi Kauśika, the son of Kuśika and one of the Vedic poet-seers, after the Puru king Kuśika had performed austerities for one thousand years to obtain a son equal to Indra who could not be killed by others. In the Pāli Kusajātaka (Jāt V 141–45), the Buddha, in one of his former bodhisattva lives as a Trāyastriṃśa god, takes birth as the future king Kusa upon the request of Indra, who wishes to help the childless king of the Mallas, Okkaka, and his chief queen Sīlavatī. This story is also referred to by Nāgasena in the Milindapañha.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

A bodhisattva.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

The first buddha of the Fortunate Eon.

One of the four castes of the Indian caste system. It traditionally consisted of rulers and administrators.

A class of dwarf beings subordinate to Virūḍhaka, one of the Four Great Kings, associated with the southern direction. The name uses a play on the word āṇḍa, which means “egg” but is also a euphemism for a testicle. Thus, they are often depicted as having testicles as big as pots (from khumba, or “pot”).

This is a collective term used by proponents of the Great Vehicle to refer to the hearer vehicle (śrāvakayāna) and solitary buddha vehicle (pratyeka­buddha­yāna). The name stems from their goal‍—i.e. nirvāṇa and personal liberation‍—being seen as small or lesser than the goal of the Great Vehicle‍—i.e. buddhahood and the liberation of all sentient beings. See also “Great Vehicle.”

The ten levels of a bodhisattva’s development into a fully enlightened buddha.

A god.

A nāga king.

The realm of the Buddha Illuminator .

The realm where Adorned with Various Jewels will become a buddha.

The realm of the Buddha Difficult to Bear.

A bodhisattva.

This term has three meanings: (1) the ultimate nature, (2) the experience of the ultimate nature, and (3) the quiescent state of a worthy one (arhat) to be avoided by bodhisattvas.

An ancient Indian philosophical system that is based on adherence to materialism and atheistic skepticism.

From Vedic times, the Lord of Death who directs the departed into the next realm of rebirth.

The realms of hell beings, pretas, and animals.

The sixth heaven of the form realm, it is the highest of the three heavens of the second dhyāna.

A goddess of the ocean.

One of the most renowned of former Buddhas.

One of the principal students of the Buddha.

One of the closest disciples of the Buddha, known for his miraculous abilities. Also called Maudgalyāyana.

A bodhisattva.

The name of a garuḍa in his past life as a monk-student of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

Along with Avalokiteśvara, he is one of the two main bodhisattvas in the realm of Sukhāvatī.

A divine king of the Pure Land.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

A gandharva king.

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

The “divine sons,” members of the māra type of nonhuman being, but in this case without a negative or harmful character. See also Sārthavāha.

A bodhisattva.

Can refer both to a physical mark or trait and to the data of perception.

A bodhisattva.

One of the closest disciples of the Buddha, known for his miraculous abilities; also called Mahāmaudgalyāyana.

A bodhisattva.

Generosity, kind talk, meaningful actions, and practicing what one preaches.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A mental state that induces one to avoid immoral behavior out of concern for what others will think or say about oneself if one misbehaves.

A sense of shame that prevents one from carrying out immoral actions.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

A bodhisattva.

The name of a bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

A nāga king.

The name of a garuḍa in his past life as a monk-student of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

In this sūtra, a buddha.

The second of two extreme views that keep one deluded with regard to reality. Nihilism is a view equally based on clinging to a truly existent essence called 'self.' It is the belief that once this self ends with death, everything associated with it ends. It therefore rejects rebirth and the law of karma, or cause and effect.

A bodhisattva.

A god.

A being who is free from further rebirth in saṃsāra.

A god.

The second level of noble ones when practicing the path of the hearers (bound to be born again no more than once).

The realm of the Buddha Gone to Accomplishment.

A lady.

This term is used to refer to the main trainings of a bodhisattva. Because these trainings, when brought to perfection, lead one to transcend saṃsāra and reach the full awakening of a buddha, they receive the Sanskrit name pāramitā, meaning “perfection” or “gone to the farther shore.” Most commonly listed as six: generosity, discipline, patience, diligence, concentration, and insight. They are also often listed as ten by adding: skillful means, prayer, strength, and knowledge.

The Tibetan literally means “the view of the perishing collection,” referring to regarding the collection of aggregates that are momentary and transitory as a self.

A nāga king.

The self-perpetuating process of affliction in the minds of beings.

See “ten powers.”

A Bengali paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth/early ninth centuries. Arriving in Tibet on an invitation from the Tibetan king, he assisted in the translation of numerous canonical scriptures. He is also the author of a few philosophical commentaries contained in the Tibetan Tengyur (bstan ’gyur) collection.

The city where the Buddha Divine King of Brahmā’s Splendor was born.

A member of the Indian priestly caste, a brahmin.

The son of the Nāga King Sāgara.

The realm of the Buddha King of the World .

A buddha.

The name of the Nāga King Sāgara when he attains buddhahood.

A bodhisattva.

The five highest of the heavens that constitute the form realm.

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Radiant King of Pure Light.

One of King Inexhaustible Merit ’s queens.

A buddha.

A lord of the asuras.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A lady.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha in the realm called Ratnavatī.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A buddha.

The realm of the Buddha Ratnaketu.

A bodhisattva.

A synonym for ultimate truth, the nature of phenomena.

A bodhisattva.

“Speech of the Sages,” an alternate name for Ṛṣipatana (drang srong lhung ba), the location of the Deer Park outside of Vārāṇasī where the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma.

A nāga king.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

The lord of the gods, also known as Indra, he dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra.

A buddha in the ream All-Seeing.

The name that Adorned with Various Jewels will adopt when she becomes a buddha.

The divine king in the Heaven of Joy.

A bodhisattva.

One of the closest disciples of the Buddha, known for his pure discipline and, of the disciples, considered foremost in wisdom.

One of Māra's sons who developed faith in the Buddha. Along with numerous other sons of Māra, he tried to dissuade Māra, the evil one, from attacking the prince Siddhārtha on the evening of his awakening. See The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14‍—21.20 and 21.43–21.51.

An important bodhisattva, included among the “eight close sons of the Buddha.” His name means “One Who Completely Dispels All Obscurations” and, accordingly, he is said to have the power to exhaust all the obscurations of anyone who merely hears his name. According to The Jewel Cloud (1.10, Toh 231), Sarva­­nīvaraṇa­­viṣkam­bhin originally dwelt in the realm of the Buddha Padma­netra, but he was so touched by the Buddha Śākyamuni’s compassionate acceptance of the barbaric and ungrateful beings who inhabit this realm that he traveled to see the Buddha Śākyamuni, offer him worship, and inquire about the Dharma. He is often included in the audience of sūtras and, in particular, he has an important role in the The Basket’s Display, Toh 116, in which he is sent to Vārāṇasī to obtain Avalokitesvara’s mantra.

A king of the asuras.

A bodhisattva.

Usually refers to the six sense faculties and their corresponding objects, i.e., the first twelve of the eighteen elements (dhātus). Along with the aggregates and elements, it is one of the three major categories in the taxonomy of phenomena in the sūtra literature.

The set of seven precious materials or substances includes a range of precious metals and gems, but their exact list varies. The set often consists of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, red pearls, emeralds, and white coral, but may also contain lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, diamonds, etc. The term is frequently used in the sūtras to exemplify preciousness, wealth, and beauty, and can describe treasures, offering materials, or the features of architectural structures such as stūpas, palaces, thrones, etc. The set is also used to describe the beauty and prosperity of buddha realms and the realms of the gods.In other contexts, the term saptaratna can also refer to the seven precious possessions of a cakravartin or to a set of seven precious moral qualities.

In this sūtra, Siddhārtha refers to another buddha.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A list of sixteen bodhisattvas headed by Bhadrapāla, mentioned in many sūtras as present in the audience. Unlike many other great bodhisattvas, they are all householders. Their names are‍—according to The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Toh 113): Bhadrapāla, Ratnākara, Susārthavāha, Naradatta, Guhyagupta, Varuṇadatta, Indradatta, Uttaramati, Viśeṣamati, Vardhamānamati, Amoghadarśin, Susaṃprasthita, Su­vikrānta­vikrāmiṇ, Anupamamati, Sūryagarbha, and Dharaṇīṃdhara.

The sixty-two false views, as enumerated in the Brahma­jāla­sūtra (Toh 352), comprise eighteen speculations concerning the past, based on theories of eternalism, partial eternalism, extensionism, endless equivocation, and fortuitous origination, as well as forty-four speculations concerning the future, based on percipient immortality, non-percipient immortality, neither percipient nor non-percipient immortality, annihilationism, and the immediate attainment of nirvāṇa in the present life.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

The realm of the future Buddha Pure and Immaculate King Who Arises from an Infinite Assembly of Qualities.

An important form of Buddhist meditation focusing on developing insight into the nature of phenomena. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being “tranquility.”

A bodhisattva.

A god.

A buddha.

A bodhisattva.

A person who has entered the “stream” of practice that leads to nirvāṇa. The first of the four accomplishments of the path of the hearers.

Generally a reference to the five strengths.

An asura king.

A god, king in the Heaven of Perfected Virtue.

A Brahmā god.

The buddha realm in which the Buddha Amitāyus lives.

A bodhisattva.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A divine king in the Heaven of Delighting in Emanations.

To superimpose inherent existence upon something that does not exist inherently.

The name of a garuḍa in his past life as a monk-student of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

The name of a thus-gone one in the future.

The name of a thus-gone one in the future.

The name of a thus-gone one in the future.

The name of a garuḍa in his past life as a monk-student of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

The name of a thus-gone one in the future.

A king of the asuras.

A grove in Presence of Joy.

A divine king in the Heaven Free from Strife.

A nāga king.

See “ten virtues.”

May refer to either: i.) the ten powers of a thus-gone one (daśatathāgatabala, de bzhin gshegs pa’i stobs bcu): (1) the knowledge of what is possible and not possible, (2) the knowledge of the ripening of karma, (3) the knowledge of the variety of aspirations, (4) the knowledge of the variety of natures, (5) the knowledge of the supreme and lesser faculties of sentient beings, (6) the knowledge of the destinations of all paths, (7) the knowledge of various states of meditation, (8) the knowledge of remembering previous lives, (9) the knowledge of deaths and rebirths, and (10) the knowledge of the cessation of defilements; or ii.) the ten powers of a bodhisattva (daśabodhisattvabala, byang chub sems pa’i stobs bcu): (1) the power of intention, (2) the power of resolute intention, (3) the power of application, (4) the power of insight, (5) the power of prayer, (6) the power of vehicle, (7) the power of conduct, (8) the power of emanation, (9) the power of awakening, and (10) the power of turning the wheel of the Dharma

Abstaining from: killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying, uttering divisive talk, speaking harsh words, gossiping, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views. These are collectively called the “ten courses of virtuous action” (daśakuśalakarmapatha).

The world of the Dharma king Banner of the Lord.

See “thirty-two marks of a great being.”

Thirty-two of the hundred and twelve identifying physical characteristics of both buddhas and universal monarchs, in addition to the so-called “eighty minor marks.”

See “thirty-two marks of a great being.”

The three kinds of knowledge obtained by the Buddha on the night of his awakening. These comprise the knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings, the knowledge of remembering previous lives, and the knowledge of the cessation of defilements.

Absence of marks, absence of wishes, and emptiness. Also known as the “three liberations.”

Absence of marks, absence of wishes, and emptiness. Also known as the “three gateways of liberation.”

The three realms are the desire realm (kāmadhātu), the form realm (rūpadhātu), and the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu), i.e., the three worlds that make up saṃsāra. The first is composed of the six classes of beings (gods, asuras, humans, animals, hungry spirits, and hell beings), whereas the latter two are only realms of gods and are thus higher, more ethereal states of saṃsāra.

Attachment, aggression, and delusion.

The vehicles of the hearers, solitary buddhas, and bodhisattvas.

A bodhisattva.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms.

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Amoghadarśin.

One of the basic forms of Buddhist meditation, it focuses on calming the mind. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being “special insight.”

A bodhisattva.

The realm of the Buddha Immaculate Hand.

The realm of the Buddha Fine Eyes.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A nāga king.

One of the thirty-two marks of a great being consisting of a hair between the eyebrows capable of emitting an intense bright light.

One of the thirty-two marks of a great being, in its simplest form it is a pointed shape to the head (like a turban), or more elaborately a dome-shaped protuberance, or even an invisible protuberance of infinite height.

A lady.

Śakra’s palace in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

One of the Four Great Kings.

A nāga king in this sūtra. The bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi is called Mahāsthāmaprāpta here.

Also known as Benares, one of the oldest cities of northeast India on the banks of the Ganges, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh. It was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kāśi, and in the Buddha’s time it had been absorbed into the kingdom of Kośala. It was an important religious center, as well as a major city, even during the time of the Buddha. The name may derive from being where the Varuna and Assi rivers flow into the Ganges. It was on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī that the Buddha first taught the Dharma, in the location known as Deer Park (Mṛgadāva). For numerous episodes set in Vārāṇasī, including its kings, see The Hundred Deeds , Toh 340.

A nāga king.

The chief of the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations.

A king of the asuras.

One of King Inexhaustible Merit ’s queens.

One of King Inexhaustible Merit ’s queens and a different woman who questions the Buddha.

A divine king of the Highest Heaven.

The Buddha’s teachings that lay out the rules and discipline for his followers.

A hill located in modern-day Bihar, India, and in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern Rajgir). A location where many sūtras were taught, and which continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

A bodhisattva.

Water that has the eight qualities of being sweet, cool, pleasant, light, clear, pure, not harmful to the throat, and beneficial for the stomach.

The realm of the Buddha Free from Misery.

Also known as the Four Great Kings.

A person who has accomplished the final fruition of the path of the hearers and is liberated from saṃsāra.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.