In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

The bodhisattvas’ realization that all phenomena are unproduced and empty. It sustains them on the difficult path of benefiting all beings so that they do not succumb to the goal of personal liberation. Different sources link this realization to the first or eighth bodhisattva level (bhūmi).

The king of Magadha and son of King Bimbisāra and his queen Vaidehī, he reigned during the last ten years of the Buddha’s life and for about twenty years after. While he was a prince, he became friends with Devadatta, who convinced him to usurp his father’s throne. After he had his father imprisoned and killed, he was tormented by guilt and regret and converted to Buddhism. Thereafter he supported the Buddhist community and the compilation of the Buddha’s teachings during the First Council.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

A close śrāvaka disciple of the Buddha.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

A nāga king whose domain is Lake Anavatapta. According to Buddhist cosmology, this lake is located near Mount Sumeru and is the source of the four great rivers of Jambudvīpa. It is often identified with Lake Manasarovar at the foot of Mount Kailash in Tibet.

Lit. “Unobstructed.” One of the ten great śrāvaka disciples, famed for his meditative prowess and superknowledges. He was the Buddha's cousin‍—a son of Amṛtodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana‍—and is often mentioned along with his two brothers Bhadrika and Mahānāma. Some sources also include Ānanda among his brothers.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

A general term applied to spiritual practitioners who live as ascetic mendicants. In Buddhist texts, the term usually refers to Buddhist monastics, but it can also designate a practitioner from other ascetic/monastic spiritual traditions. In this context śramaṇa is often contrasted with the term brāhmaṇa (bram ze), which refers broadly to followers of the Vedic tradition. Any renunciate, not just a Buddhist, could be referred to as a śramaṇa if they were not within the Vedic fold. The epithet Great Śramaṇa is often applied to the Buddha.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

Literally “The Ascended,” the fourth of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’ Absorption. It has been assumed that this is a variant Tibetan spelling of a buddha of the past whose attested Sanskrit name is elsewhere found in Tibetan as mthor ’phags pa (The Chapter on Medicines [Bhaiṣajyavastu, Toh 1-6], e.g., 9.­1506) and shin tu mtho bar gshegs pa (The Stem Array [Gaṇḍavyūha, Toh 44-45], 28.­15–28.­18), among other variants.

One of four words that emanate from every pore of the bodhisattva child Without Reference who arrives at the scene of the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. See “buddha.”

See also “buddha.”

The three lower rebirths, into the realms of hell beings, pretas, and animals.

The bamboo grove near Rājagṛha where the Buddha regularly stayed and gave teachings. It was situated on land donated by King Bimbisāra of Magadha. It was the first of several landholdings donated to the Buddhist community during the time of the Buddha.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

A buddha to the south, from whose buddha field, the world called Ratnavyūha, the bodhisattva child Thoroughly at Peace comes.

An epithet of the Buddha.

In Sanskrit, the term nirvāṇa literally means “extinguishment” and the Tibetan mya ngan las ’das pa literally means “gone beyond sorrow.” As a general term, it refers to the cessation of all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence, as well as to the state in which all such rebirth and suffering has permanently ceased.More specifically, three main types of nirvāṇa are identified. (1) The first type of nirvāṇa, called nirvāṇa with remainder (sopadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), is the state in which arhats or buddhas have attained awakening but are still dependent on the conditioned aggregates until their lifespan is exhausted. (2) At the end of life, given that there are no more causes for rebirth, these aggregates cease and no new aggregates arise. What occurs then is called nirvāṇa without remainder ( anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), which refers to the unconditioned element (dhātu) of nirvāṇa in which there is no remainder of the aggregates. (3) The Mahāyāna teachings distinguish the final nirvāṇa of buddhas from that of arhats, the nirvāṇa of arhats not being considered ultimate. The buddhas attain what is called nonabiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhitanirvāṇa), which transcends the extremes of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, i.e., existence and peace. This is the nirvāṇa that is the goal of the Mahāyāna path.See “pass into nirvāṇa.”

A deity from the Brahmā realms.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.

The collected teachings of the Great Vehicle or Mahāyāna.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

A collective name for the first three heavens of the form realm, which correspond to the first concentration (dhyāna): Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, and Mahābrahmā (also called Brahmapārṣadya). These are ruled over by the god Brahmā. According to some sources, it can also be a general reference to all the heavens in the form realm and formless realm. (Provisional 84000 definition. New definition forthcoming.)

See “seven branches of awakening.”

A fully awakened being; when spelled with a capital letter it refers to the Buddha Śākyamuni, one of the Three Jewels, unless another buddha is specified.

In this text, the world system in which a particular buddha has appeared.

In Buddhist usage, a general term for non-Buddhist religious mendicants, often paired with parivrājakas in stock lists of followers of heretical movements.

See “celibate renunciate.”

One who abstains from sexual activity as a religious observance.

A “thousandfold universe,” also called a “small chiliocosm” (sāhasracūḍiko loka­dhātu), consisting of a thousand worlds each made up of their own Mount Meru, four continents, sun, moon, and god realms.

Though often specifically reserved for the monastic community, this term can be applied to any of the four Buddhist communities‍—monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen‍—as well as to identify the different groups of practitioners, like the community of bodhisattvas or the community of śrāvakas. It is also the third of the Three Jewels (triratna) of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Community.

One of the sixteen great countries (mahājanapada) of Northern India during the Buddha’s lifetime, with Kuśinagara as its capital. See also “Malla.”

The five crimes of immediate retribution, acts for which one will be reborn in hell immediately after death, without any intervening stages: killing an arhat, killing one’s mother, killing one’s father, creating schism in the saṅgha, and maliciously drawing blood from a tathāgata’s body.

A monk who trained under the buddha Flawless Eye. A previous life of the bodhisattva child Without Reference.

The cousin and adversary of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Devadatta befriended Ajātaśatru and convinced him to usurp the throne of his father Bimbisāra.

The term dhāraṇī has the sense of something that “holds” or “retains,” and so it can refer to the special capacity of practitioners to memorize and recall detailed teachings. It can also refer to a verbal expression of the teachings‍—an incantation, spell, or mnemonic formula‍—that distills and “holds” essential points of the Dharma and is used by practitioners to attain mundane and supramundane goals. The same term is also used to denote texts that contain such formulas.

The buddha of the past who prophesied the future awakening of the Buddha Śākyamuni. The first of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’Absorption.

See “hearer.”

The eight great hot hells are usually listed as the Reviving Hell, the Black Line Hell, the Crushing Hell, the Wailing Hell, the Great Wailing Hell, the Hell of Heat, the Hell of Intense Heat, and the Hell of Unceasing Torture.

A nāga king.

The eldest and most venerable among the monastic Buddhist disciples.

One of four words that emanate from every pore of the bodhisattva child Without Reference who arrives at the scene of the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

A cosmic period of time, sometimes equivalent to the time when a world system appears, exists, and disappears. According to the traditional Abhidharma understanding of cyclical time, a great eon (mahākalpa) is divided into eighty lesser eons. In the course of one great eon, the universe takes form and later disappears. During the first twenty of the lesser eons, the universe is in the process of creation and expansion; during the next twenty it remains; during the third twenty, it is in the process of destruction; and during the last quarter of the cycle, it remains in a state of empty stasis. A fortunate, or good, eon (bhadrakalpa) refers to any eon in which more than one buddha appears.

A merchant in the city of Vārāṇasī, in whose household appears the bodhisattva child Without Reference.

One of the five “eyes” (pañcacakṣus) or higher perceptions of buddhas, it refers to the ability to see across great distances and through physical objects.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

The fearlessnesses of a buddha are usually counted as four and refer to the four assurances proclaimed by buddhas: fearlessness in declaring that one has awakened, that one has ceased all illusions, that one has taught the obstacles to awakening, and that one has shown the way to liberation.

A synonym for ultimate reality; the dimension (dhātu) of all phenomena (dharma). While the Sanskrit term dhātu was regularly translated into Tibetan as khams (“field,” “element,” or “realm”), in this multivalent compound it was translated into Tibetan as dbyings, meaning “space,” thereby expressing the ultimate reality of all phenomena as boundless, immaterial, and nonconceptual.

Refers to the five fundamental precepts of abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and consuming intoxicants.

The five degenerations are usually enumerated as (1) degeneration of lifespan, (2) degeneration of views, (3) degeneration of the afflictions (4) degeneration of beings, and (5) degeneration of the era.

The buddha from whom the bodhisattva child Without Reference received teachings in a former life.

Literally “he who has obtained the blooming flower of higher perception.” A bodhisattva from the “flower-filled” buddha field Puṣpavatī far to the north, who incarnates as a child in the household of a general in the city of Vaiśālī.

The four types of Buddhist disciples: male and female monastics (Skt. bhikṣu, Tib. dge slong) and male and female lay devotees (Skt. upāsaka, Tib. dge bsnyen). Pali: caturparisa.

The four levels of absorption of the beings living in the form realms.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

The four truths that the Buddha transmitted in his first teaching: (1) suffering, (2) the origin of suffering, (3) the cessation of suffering, and (4) the path to the cessation of suffering.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The family name of the Buddha Śākyamuni, shared with his close relatives. In The Four Boys’Absorption, the Buddha refers to his cousin Ānanda, who was his father’s brother’s son, as “Son of Gautama.”

A close śrāvaka disciple of the Buddha.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

See “god.”

One of the eight hot hells, the name refers to the black thread that is used to make lines on the bodies of those reborn there so that they can be cut into pieces.

One of the eight hot hells. Its inhabitants are repeatedly crushed between mountains.

An epithet for the Buddha’s principal śrāvaka students.

The lowest of the eight hot hells, it is characterized as endless not only in terms of the torment undergone there, but also because of the ceaseless chain of actions and effects experienced, the long lifespan of its denizens, and their being so densely crowded together that there is no physical space between them.

One of the eight hot hells. Born frightened of one another, its inhabitants fight using sharp weapons, and every time they die are instantly revived and continue fighting.

Here used as an epithet of the Buddha.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

One of the eight hot hells. An even greater version of the Wailing Hell, likewise known for the cries of its inhabitants.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

A heaven in the desire realm.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

The highest heaven of the desire realm, the gods there possess the ability to control the magical creations of others.

The second heaven of the desire realm, located above Mount Meru and reigned over by Indra and thirty-two other gods.

A heaven in the desire realm.

One of the eight hot hells. Inhabitants of this hell are boiled in cauldrons, roasted in pans, beaten with hammers, and skewered with spears as their bodies burn.

One of the eight hot hells. Inhabitants of this hell undergo all the sufferings of the Hell of Heat, as well as being seared, beaten, and skewered.

Superknowledges or clairvoyances, normally listed as five or six. The first five are divine sight, divine hearing, knowing how to manifest miracles, remembering previous lives, and knowing the minds of others. A sixth, knowing that all defects have been eliminated, is often added. The first five are attained through concentration (Tib. bsam gtan, Skt. dhyāna) and are sometimes described as worldly, as they can be attained to some extent by non-Buddhist yogis, while the sixth is supramundane and attained only by realization‍—by bodhisattvas or, according to some accounts, only by buddhas.

The three higher realms of saṃsāra, those of the humans, asuras, and devas.

A nāga king.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

The stage on the bodhisattva path at which the practitioner will never turn back and will inevitably proceed toward full awakening.

A mythical river famed as the source of the finest gold.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A park in Śrāvastī, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kośala in northern India. It was owned by Prince Jeta, and the wealthy merchant Anāthapiṇḍada, wishing to offer it to the Buddha, bought it from him by covering the entire property with gold coins. It was to become the place where the monks could be housed during the monsoon season, thus creating the first Buddhist monastery. It is therefore the setting for many of the Buddha's discourses.

Indian Kashmiri paṇḍita who was resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of several sūtras.

A world far to the west of Jambudvīpa. The buddha field of the buddha Lord of Joy, from which the bodhisattva child Without Reference comes.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

The seventh of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’ Absorption. Elsewhere named as the fifth of the seven buddhas, with Śākyamuni as the seventh.

The capital city of the Śākya kingdom, the city where the Buddha Śākyamuni spent his youth. At present, there are two archeological sites, one on either side of the present border between Nepal and India, that have been identified as its remains.

The last of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’ Absorption. Elsewhere named as the sixth of the seven buddhas, with Śākyamuni as the seventh.

One of the elders mentioned in The Four Boys’ Absorption as being present at the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. He is to be distinguished from the disciple Mahākāśyapa who, it is said, was not present.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his ability to understand the Buddha’s teachings.

One of the great śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha Śākyamuni, known for his analytical reasoning.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

Another name of Maudgalyāyana. The meaning of the Tibetan is “Born from the Lap.”

The sixth of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’Absorption. Elsewhere named as the fourth of the seven buddhas, with Śākyamuni as the seventh.

Capital city of the Mallas, near the site where the Buddha passed into parinirvāṇa.

A lay Buddhist practitioner who observes the five precepts not to kill, lie, steal, be intoxicated, or commit sexual misconduct.

An ancient unit of measuring distance, calculated differently in various systems but in the range of four to nine modern miles.

“Lion-Like,” a merchant in Śrāvastī in whose household the bodhisattva Thoroughly at Peace appears as a child.

A stage in the path to awakening.

The third of four levels of attainment in the vehicle of the śrāvakas, at which one will no longer be reborn in the desire realm.

A stage in the path to awakening.

A stage in the path to awakening.

A person belonging to the Licchavi clan, the people of the city and region of Vaiśālī at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The bed, divan, or couch upon which the Buddha passes into parinirvāṇa.

The Buddha’s seat or a royal throne.

A buddha to the west, from whose buddha field the bodhisattva child Without Reference comes.

An epithet of Brahmā. See “Sahā world.”

See “bad rebirth.”

An ancient Indian kingdom that lay to the south of the Ganges River in what today is the state of Bihar. Magadha was the largest of the sixteen “great states” (mahājanapada) that flourished between the sixth and third centuries ʙᴄᴇ in northern India. During the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it was ruled by King Bimbisāra and later by Bimbisāra's son, Ajātaśatru. Its capital was initially Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir) but was later moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern-day Patna). Over the centuries, with the expansion of the Magadha’s might, it became the capital of the vast Mauryan empire and seat of the great King Aśoka.This region is home to many of the most important Buddhist sites, including Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained awakening; Vulture Peak (Gṛdhra­kūṭa), where the Buddha bestowed many well-known Mahāyāna sūtras; and the Buddhist university of Nālandā that flourished between the fifth and twelfth centuries ᴄᴇ, among many others.

A leading disciple of the Buddha, famed for his asceticism. According to tradition, Mahākāśyapa was absent at the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. After the Buddha’s passing, he became a leader of the saṅgha.

See “Kauṣṭhila.”

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

Name of a people or clan in Northern India during the Buddha’s lifetime. The literal meaning of gyad in Tibetan is “athlete,” “strong man,” or “champion.”

See “country of the Mallas.”

See “country of the Mallas.”

A nāga king.

Possibly the purple orchid (Bauhinia purpurea) or the coral tree (Erythrina indica); a tree with divine association whose flowers are showered over the world by gods.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, paired with Śāriputra. He was renowned for his miraculous powers. His family clan was descended from Mudgala, hence his name Maudgalyā­yana, “the son of Mudgala’s descendants.” Respectfully referred to as Mahā­maudgalyā­yana, “Great Maudgalyāyana.”

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

Here used as an epithet of the Buddha.

A dwelling place of Buddhist monks. Originally a place where wandering monks would stay only during the monsoon, it later developed into a permanent domicile.

A nāga king.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

A female nāga, or “daughter of nāgas.”

A nāga king.

A śrāvaka disciple of the Buddha.

A śrāvaka disciple of the Buddha.

The third of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Absorption of the Four Boys. In The Basket’s Display (Kāraṇḍavyūha, Toh 116, 2.­41–2.­59), this is the buddha who receives the six-syllable mantra from Avalokiteśvara.

A non-Buddhist religious mendicant who literally “roams around.” Historically, they wandered in India from ancient times, including the time of the Buddha, and held a variety of beliefs, engaging with one another in debate on a range of topics. Some of their metaphysical views are presented in the early Buddhist discourses of the Pali Canon. They included women in their number.

In Sanskrit, the term nirvāṇa literally means “extinguishment” and the Tibetan mya ngan las ’das pa literally means “gone beyond sorrow.” As a general term, it refers to the cessation of all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence, as well as to the state in which all such rebirth and suffering has permanently ceased.More specifically, three main types of nirvāṇa are identified. (1) The first type of nirvāṇa, called nirvāṇa with remainder (sopadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), is the state in which arhats or buddhas have attained awakening but are still dependent on the conditioned aggregates until their lifespan is exhausted. (2) At the end of life, given that there are no more causes for rebirth, these aggregates cease and no new aggregates arise. What occurs then is called nirvāṇa without remainder ( anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), which refers to the unconditioned element (dhātu) of nirvāṇa in which there is no remainder of the aggregates. (3) The Mahāyāna teachings distinguish the final nirvāṇa of buddhas from that of arhats, the nirvāṇa of arhats not being considered ultimate. The buddhas attain what is called nonabiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhitanirvāṇa), which transcends the extremes of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, i.e., existence and peace. This is the nirvāṇa that is the goal of the Mahāyāna path.The term is used interchangeably in this text with “pass into parinirvāṇa” to refer to the Buddha passing away.

This refers to what occurs at the end of an arhat’s or a buddha’s life. When nirvāṇa is attained at awakening, whether as an arhat or buddha, all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence have ceased, but due to previously accumulated karma, the aggregates of that life remain and must still exhaust themselves. It is only at the end of life that these cease, and since no new aggregates arise, the arhat or buddha is said to attain parinirvāṇa, meaning “complete” or “final” nirvāṇa. This is synonymous with the attainment of nirvāṇa without remainder (anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa). According to the Mahāyāna view of a single vehicle (ekayāna), the arhat’s parinirvāṇa at death, despite being so called, is not final. The arhat must still enter the bodhisattva path and reach buddhahood (see Unraveling the Intent, Toh 106, 7.14.) On the other hand, the parinirvāṇa of a buddha, ultimately speaking, should be understood as a display manifested for the benefit of beings; see The Teaching on the Extraordinary Transformation That Is the Miracle of Attaining the Buddha’s Powers (Toh 186), 1.32. The term parinirvāṇa is also associated specifically with the passing away of the Buddha Śākyamuni, in Kuśinagara, in northern India.

One of four words that emanate from every pore of the bodhisattva child Without Reference who arrives at the scene of the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.

The name given to the Buddha’s personal room at the Jetavana monastery. The term was later applied to the room in any monastery where an image of the Buddha is installed, to signify his presence.

A class of nonhuman beings that, like several other classes of nonhuman beings, take spontaneous birth. Ranking below rākṣasas, they are less powerful and more akin to pretas. They are said to dwell in impure and perilous places, where they feed on impure things, including flesh. This could account for the name piśāca, which possibly derives from √piś, to carve or chop meat, as reflected also in the Tibetan sha za, “meat eater.” They are often described as having an unpleasant appearance, and at times they appear with animal bodies. Some possess the ability to enter the dead bodies of humans, thereby becoming so-called vetāla, to touch whom is fatal.

See “ten powers”

Literally “Lord of Creatures,” the title usually refers to high worldly gods such as Indra, Viṣṇu, and Śiva.

Indian Bengali paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. Arriving in Tibet at the invitation of the Tibetan king, he assisted in the translation of numerous canonical scriptures.

A world far to the east of Jambudvīpa. The buddha field of the buddha Siṃhanāda, from which the bodhisattva child Sucintitārtha comes.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

An epithet for the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The five Pure Abodes are the highest heavens of the Form Realm (rūpadhātu). They are called “pure abodes” because ordinary beings (pṛthagjana; so so’i skye bo) cannot be born there; only those who have achieved the fruit of a non-returner (anāgāmin; phyir mi ’ong) can be born there. A summary presentation of them is found in the third chapter of Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa, although they are repeatedly mentioned as a set in numerous sūtras, tantras, and vinaya texts.The five Pure Abodes are the last five of the seventeen levels of the Form Realm. Specifically, they are the last five of the eight levels of the upper Form Realm‍—which corresponds to the fourth meditative concentration (dhyāna; bsam gtan)‍—all of which are described as “immovable” (akopya; mi g.yo ba) since they are never destroyed during the cycles of the destruction and reformation of a world system. In particular, the five are Abṛha (mi che ba), the inferior heaven; Atapa (mi gdung ba), the heaven of no torment; Sudṛśa (gya nom snang), the heaven of sublime appearances; Sudarśana (shin tu mthong), the heaven of the most beautiful to behold; and Akaniṣṭha (’og min), the highest heaven.Yaśomitra explains their names, stating: (1) because those who abide there can only remain for a fixed amount of time, before they are plucked out (√bṛh, bṛṃhanti) of that heaven, or because it is not as extensive (abṛṃhita) as the others in the pure realms, that heaven is called the inferior heaven (abṛha; mi che ba); (2) since the afflictions can no longer torment (√tap, tapanti) those who reside there because of their having attained a particular samādhi, or because their state of mind is virtuous, they no longer torment (√tap, tāpayanti) others, this heaven, consequently, is called the heaven of no torment (atapa; mi gdung ba); (3) since those who reside there have exceptional (suṣṭhu) vision because what they see (√dṛś, darśana) is utterly pure, that heaven is called the heaven of sublime appearances (sudṛśa; gya nom snang); (4) because those who reside there are beautiful gods, that heaven is called the heaven of the most beautiful to behold (sudarśana; shin tu mthong); and (5) since it is not lower (na kaniṣṭhā) than any other heaven because there is no other place superior to it, this heaven is called the highest heaven (akaniṣṭha; ’og min) since it is the uppermost.

Freedom from subject, object, and action. The name of an absorption, mentioned for example in The Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Toh 10), 7.­8.

One of the principal disciple s of the Buddha.

One of the principal disciple s of the Buddha, famed for his ability to teach the Dharma.

“With Flowers,” a world far to the north of Jambudvīpa, the buddha field of Resting in the Branches of Awakening from which the child bodhisattva Flower of Clairvoyance comes, having incarnated in the household of a general in Vaiśālī.

The son of the Buddha and an important disciple whom the Buddha invests with authority, along with Ānanda, just before his parinirvāṇa in The Four Boys’ Absorption.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A world far to the south of Jambudvīpa; the “Jewel Array” buddha field of the buddha Beautiful Heap of Jewels, from which the bodhisattva child Thoroughly at Peace comes.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

A buddha to the north, from whose buddha field which the bodhisattva child Flower of Clairvoyance comes. The branches of awakening (Skt. bodhyaṅga, Tib. byang chub yan lag) are normally counted as seven: mindfulness, discrimination, diligence, joy, pliability, absorption, and equanimity.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

According to most lists (specifically those of the Pāli and some Abhidharma traditions), the (three) roots of virtue or the roots of the good or wholesome states (of mind) are what makes a mental state good or bad; they are identified as the opposites of the three mental “poisons” of greed, hatred, and delusion. Actions based on the roots of virtue will eventually lead to future happiness. The Dharmasaṃgraha, however, lists the three roots of virtue as (1) the mind of awakening, (2) purity of thought, and (3) freedom from egotism (Skt. trīṇi kuśala­mūlāni | bodhi­cittotpādaḥ, āśayaviśuddhiḥ, ahaṃkāramama­kāraparityāgaśceti|).

A nāga king.

Here used as an epithet of the Buddha.

An ancient Indian spiritual title, often translated as “sage” or “seer.” The title is particularly used for divinely inspired individuals credited with creating the foundations of Indian culture. The term is also applied to Śākyamuni and other realized Buddhist figures.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

Name of the ancient tribe in which the Buddha was born as a prince; their kingdom was based to the east of Kośala, in the foothills near the present-day border of India and Nepal, with Kapilavastu as its capital.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.

A widespread species of tall trees in forests of the Indian subcontinent, either Vatica robusta or Shorea robusta.

See also “community.”

This absorption, literally “having a core,” is listed in the Mahāvyutpatti.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

A son of Māra. In The Play in Full (Lalitavistara, Toh 95, 21.­14–21.­18, 21.­43–21.­44), Sārthavāha, having developed faith in Prince Siddhārtha, tries to dissuade Māra from attacking him on the eve of his awakening.

The second of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’ Absorption.

The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.

The set of seven factors or aspects that characteristically manifest on the path of seeing: (1) mindfulness (smṛti, dran pa), (2) discrimination between dharmas (dharmapravicaya, chos rab tu rnam ’byed/shes rab), (3) diligence (vīrya, brtson ’grus), (4) joy (prīti, dga’ ba), (5) mental and physical ease (praśrabdhi, shin sbyangs), (6) meditative absorption (samādhi, ting nge ’dzin), and (7) equanimity (upekṣā, btang snyoms).

Second of the “three gateways to liberation,” ‍namely, (1) emptiness or the absence of inherent existence, (2) signlessness or the absence of mental constructs, (3) and wishlessness or the absence of hopes and fears.

A deity from the Brahmā realms.

A general who lived in Vaiśalī.

Lit. “Lion-Voiced.” A buddha to the east, from whose buddha field the bodhisattva child Sucintitārtha comes.

See “solitary buddha.”

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

See “hearer.”

The capital of the ancient Indian kingdom of Kośala during the sixth–fifth centuries ʙᴄᴇ and ruled by one of the Buddha’s royal patrons, King Prasenajit. It was the setting for many sūtras, as the Buddha spent many rains retreats outside the city, in the Jetavana Grove. It has been identified with the present-day Sahet Mahet in Uttar Pradesh on the banks of the river Rapti.

A śrāvaka disciple of the Buddha.

The level of attainment of an arhat, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions, and has reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. The fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by hearers ( śrāvakas ).

A distinctive Indian assembly hall or temple with one ground-floor room and a high ornamental roof, sometimes a barrel shape with apses but more usually a tapering roof, tower, or spire. It contains at least one additional upper room within the structure. The term kūṭāgāra literally means “upper chamber” and is short for kūṭāgāraśālā (“hall with an upper chamber”).

One of the principal disciple s of the Buddha, known for his profound understanding of emptiness.

Lit. “Well-Intentioned.” A bodhisattva from the buddha field called Precious and Melodious far to the east of Jambudvīpa, who appears as a child in the household of King Ajātaśatru of Magadha.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

The ten powers of a buddha that are frequently listed in Pali and Sanskrit sources are all “powers of knowing” (Skt. jñānabala), namely, (1) knowing what is possible and what is impossible (Skt. sthānāsthāna), (2) knowing the ripening of karma (Skt. karmavipāka), (3) knowing the various inclinations (Skt. nānādhimukti). (4) knowing the various elements (Skt. nānādhātu). (5) knowing the supreme and lesser faculties (Skt. indriya­parāpara), (6) knowing the paths that lead to all destinations (Skt. sarva­tragāminī­pratipad), (7) knowing the concentrations, liberations, absorptions, and attainments (Skt. dhyānavi­mokṣa­samādhi­samāpatti), (8) knowing the recollection of past existences (Skt. pūrva­nivāsānu­smṛti), (9) knowing death and rebirth (Skt. cyutyupapatti), and (10) knowing the exhaustion of the defilements (Skt. āsravakṣaya).

A bodhisattva from the buddha field Ratnavyūha, far to the south of Jambudvīpa, who appears as a child in the household of a prominent merchant in Śrāvastī.

The three realms that contain all the various kinds of existence in saṃsāra: the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.

In the context of the sūtras, the three vehicles are those of the hearers, solitary buddhas, and bodhisattvas.

See “three realms.”

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

See “three realms.”

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

The absence of being, in the sense of not being an entity or nonexistent. One of four words that emanate from every pore of the bodhisattva child Without Reference who arrives at the scene of the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.

One of eight mythological nāga kings. The story of the two nāga kings Upananda and Nanda and their taming by the Buddha and Maudgalyāyana is told in the Vinayavibhaṅga (Toh 3, Degé vol. 6, ’dul ba, ja, F.221.a–224.a).

An epithet of Śāriputra, one of the Buddha’s foremost disciple s. Śāriputra’s grandfather named him Upatiṣya, “Tiṣya’s Heir,” to honor Śāriputra’s father Tiṣya.

A queen of King Bimbisāra of Magadha and the mother of King Ajātaśatru.

The ancient capital of the Licchavi republic. The Buddha visited this city several times during his lifetime. It is perhaps most famous as the location where, on different occasions, he cured a plague, admitted the first nuns into the Buddhist order, was offered a bowl of honey by monkeys, and announced his parinirvāṇa three months prior to his departure.

Statements regarding the ultimate nature of phenomena.

Also known as Benares, one of the oldest cities of northeast India on the banks of the Ganges, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh. It was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kāśi, and in the Buddha’s time it had been absorbed into the kingdom of Kośala. It was an important religious center, as well as a major city, even during the time of the Buddha. The name may derive from being where the Varuna and Assi rivers flow into the Ganges. It was on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī that the Buddha first taught the Dharma, in the location known as Deer Park (Mṛgadāva). For numerous episodes set in Vārāṇasī, including its kings, see The Hundred Deeds , Toh 340.

The name in Tibetan literally means “God of Water”; a nāga who comes to pay respects at the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.

A member of the Malla clan who worships the Buddha at his parinirvāṇa.

One of the eight hot hells, it is named for the cries of its inhabitants, who are engulfed in a tremendous blaze.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

Third of the “three gateways to liberation,”‍ ‍namely, (1) emptiness or the absence of inherent existence, (2) signlessness or the absence of mental constructs, (3) and wishlessness or the absence of hopes and fears.

A bodhisattva who comes from the buddha field called Joy (dga’ spu) far to the west of Jambudvīpa and incarnates as a child in the household of a merchant in Vārāṇasī. The name refers to ultimate reality, meaning “Without Objectifying Perception” or “Without Reference Points.”

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

A female yakṣa.

The grove of śāla trees outside Kuśinagara where the Buddha passed into parinirvāṇa.

The fifth of eight named buddhas of the past (with the addition of Śākyamuni making nine) in The Four Boys’Absorption.

The yoke, a wooden bar placed across an animal’s shoulders when ploughing, was commonly used as a measure of length, equal to four cubits.