One of the three gateways to liberation.

One of the three gateways to liberation.

The five aggregates of form, sensation, perception, formation, and consciousness. On the individual level the five aggregates refer to the basis upon which the mistaken idea of a self is projected.

The second King of Magadha during the Buddha’s time. He was the son of King Bimbisāra and one of his queens, Vaidehī (lus ’phags mo), and usurped his father’s throne. After Bimbisāra died in his subsequent imprisonment, Ajātaśatru felt remorse and became an ardent supporter of the Buddha.

A follower of a heterodox mendicant movement that emerged about the time of the Buddha around a pupil of Mahāvīra named Gośāla and survived until the 13th century; its followers adhered to a type of determinism and practiced strict asceticism.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

Four types of mindfulness that regard the body, feelings, the mind, and dharmas.

A bodhisattva.

One of the six classes of living beings, sometimes included among the gods and sometimes among the animals. A class of superhuman beings, sometimes misleadingly called demigods, engendered and dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility, who are metaphorically described as being incessantly embroiled in a dispute with the gods over the possession of a magical tree.

One of the “eight close sons of the Buddha,” he is also known as the bodhisattva who embodies compassion. In certain tantras, he is also the lord of the three families, where he embodies the compassion of the buddhas. In Tibet, he attained great significance as a special protector of Tibet, and in China, in female form, as Guanyin, the most important bodhisattva in all of East Asia.

Four types of absorption related to intention, diligence, attention, and analysis, respectively.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

A collective term for the seventeen heavens in the form realm.

The aspects that constitute the path of seeing, namely mindfulness, analysis of phenomena, diligence, joy, pliancy, absorption, and sameness. These form a part of the thirty-seven factors to enlightenment.

A city in ancient India, located on the Campā River. It was the capital of the Anga state, which was located east of Magadha.

A god.

In Buddhist usage, a general term for non-Buddhist religious mendicants, paired with parivrājaka in stock lists of followers of heretical movements.

The tenth heaven of the form realm.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late 8th and early 9th centuries.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

An elephant.

Type of magical formula; this term might also refer to recollection.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A former buddha who prophesied the awakening of Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements (eye, form, and eye consciousness; ear, sound, and ear consciousness; nose, odor, and nose consciousness; tongue, taste, and tongue consciousness; body, touch, and body consciousness; mind, mental objects, and mind consciousness).It can also refer to the six elements of earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness. Out of these six, the first four elements are also called “great elements.”

A bodhisattva.

Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

A particular type of jewel with great magical powers. The name suggests the ability to enchant or enthrall, or to produce things at will.

A state of mental equilibrium derived from deep concentration.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A term with a wide range of meanings. Often refers to the five faculties, namely: faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and knowledge, that are among the thirty-seven factors of awakening; or to the five sense faculties; or to one of the twenty-two faculties.

A bodhisattva.

The fourfold fearlessness or the four assurances proclaimed by the thus-gone ones: fearlessness in declaring that one has awakened, that one has ceased all illusions, that one has taught the obstacles to awakening, and that one has shown the way to liberation.

A bodhisattva.

These guardians are the four great kings of the quarters; Vaiśravaṇa, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Virūḍhaka, and Virūpākṣa. Their mission is to report on the activities of humans to the gods and to protect the practitioners of the Dharma.

Four types of transformative powers, also called blessings. These are: truth, giving, peace, and insight.

Correct knowledge of meaning, Dharma, language, and eloquence.

Generosity, kind talk, meaningful actions, and practicing what one preaches.

Gaṇapati, or Ganeśa, is the lord of the gaṇas, a class of asuras usually associated with the god Śiva. In the Purāṇic traditions Gaṇapati is portrayed as the elephant-headed son of Śiva and Pārvatī.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

An ancient city in North India, located in the modern state of Bihar.

A bodhisattva.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

The second highest of the seventeen heavens in the form realm.

The third heaven of the form realm.

The four great elements are earth, water, fire, and wind. They are called “great” because they are found in the external world as well as inside the bodies of beings.

A bodhisattva.

A wrathful form of Śiva.

One category of Dharma protectors in Buddhism. See also “four guardians of the world.”

A bodhisattva.

The third of the six heavens of the desire realm.

The fifth of the six heavens of the desire realm.

The twelfth heaven of the form realm.

The eleventh heaven of the form realm.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

The seventh heaven of the form realm.

The eighth heaven of the form realm.

The highest of the six heavens of the desire realm.

The fourteenth heaven of the form realm.

The ninth heaven of the form realm.

The first of the six heavens of the desire realm.

The second heaven of the desire realm located above Mount Meru and reigned over by Indra and thirty-two other gods.

One of the eight hot hells.

The second heaven of the form realm.

The highest heaven of the form realm.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

Another name for Śakra.

Transcendent awareness; the mind that sees the ultimate truth. One of the six perfections of bodhisattvas.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late 8th and early 9th centuries.

A kind of spirit or ghost.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

A bodhisattva.

Name of the tribe and republican city-state whose capital was Vaiśālī.

This term has three meanings: (1) the ultimate nature, (2) the experience of the ultimate nature, and (3) the quiescent state of a worthy one (arhat) to be avoided by bodhisattvas.

The fourth heaven of the form realm.

The fifth heaven of the form realm.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

The sixth heaven of the form realm.

An ancient Indian kingdom that lay to the south of the Ganges River in what today is the state of Bihar. Magadha was the largest of the sixteen “great states” (mahājanapada) that flourished between the sixth and third centuries ʙᴄᴇ in northern India. During the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it was ruled by King Bimbisāra and later by Bimbisāra's son, Ajātaśatru. Its capital was initially Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir) but was later moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern-day Patna). Over the centuries, with the expansion of the Magadha’s might, it became the capital of the vast Mauryan empire and seat of the great King Aśoka.This region is home to many of the most important Buddhist sites, including Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained awakening; Vulture Peak (Gṛdhra­kūṭa), where the Buddha bestowed many well-known Mahāyāna sūtras; and the Buddhist university of Nālandā that flourished between the fifth and twelfth centuries ᴄᴇ, among many others.

A god.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

A brahmin youth.

A brahmin youth.

In Buddhist usage, non-Buddhist religious mendicants, often referring to Jains, who eschew clothing and possessions.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A general term for homeless religious mendicants who, literally, “roam around”; in Buddhist usage the term refers to non-Buddhist peripatetic ascetics including Jains and others.

A bodhisattva.

A class of nonhuman beings that, like several other classes of nonhuman beings, take spontaneous birth. Ranking below rākṣasas, they are less powerful and more akin to pretas. They are said to dwell in impure and perilous places, where they feed on impure things, including flesh. This could account for the name piśāca, which possibly derives from √piś, to carve or chop meat, as reflected also in the Tibetan sha za, “meat eater.” They are often described as having an unpleasant appearance, and at times they appear with animal bodies. Some possess the ability to enter the dead bodies of humans, thereby becoming so-called vetāla, to touch whom is fatal.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A bodhisattva.

A Licchavi youth.

The “sphere of dharmas,” a synonym for the nature of things.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A wrathful form of Śiva.

This present world-system. Usually it refers to the whole trichiliocosm, but at times it only refers to our own world with four continents around Mount Meru. Sahā means “endurance,” as beings there have to endure suffering.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

An important form of Buddhist meditation focusing on developing insight into the nature of phenomena. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being tranquility.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A merchant.

The fifteenth heaven of the form realm.

A householder.

A god.

A bodhisattva.

The higher cognitions are listed as either five or six. The first five are: divine sight, divine hearing, knowing how to manifest miracles, remembering previous lives, knowing what is in the minds of others. A sixth, knowing that all defects have been eliminated, is often added. The first five are attained through concentration (dhyāna), and are sometimes described as worldly, as they can be attained to some extent by non-Buddhist yogis; while the sixth is supramundane and attained only by realization‍—by bodhisattvas, or according to some accounts only by buddhas.

A bodhisattva.

A merchant.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A householder.

A god.

A householder.

One set among the different qualities of a tathāgata. The ten powers are (1) the knowledge of what is possible and not possible; (2) the knowledge of the ripening of karma; (3) the knowledge of the variety of aspirations; (4) the knowledge of the variety of natures; (5) the knowledge of the different levels of capabilities; (6) the knowledge of the destinations of all paths; (7) the knowledge of various states of meditation (dhyāna, liberation, samādhi, samāpatti, and so on); (8) the knowledge of remembering previous lives; (9) the knowledge of deaths and rebirths; and (10) the knowledge of the cessation of defilements.

Thirty-seven practices that lead the practitioner to the awakened state: the four applications of mindfulness, the four thorough relinquishments, the four bases of miraculous power, the five faculties, the five powers, the eightfold path, and the seven branches of awakening.

Four types of relinquishment of abandoning existing negative mind states, abandoning the production of such states, giving rise to virtuous mind states that are not yet produced, and letting those states continue.

Agent, act, and object.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One of the basic forms of Buddhist meditation that focuses on calming the mind. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being special insight.

Twelve qualities of the perfect buddha realm in which a thus-gone one attains awakening.

The thirteenth heaven of the form realm.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

The ancient capital of the Licchavi republic.

A bodhisattva.

Vajrapāṇi means “Wielder of the Vajra.” In the Pali canon, he appears as a yakṣa guardian in the retinue of the Buddha. In the Mahāyāna scriptures he is a bodhisattva and one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha.” In the tantras, he is also regarded as an important Buddhist deity and instrumental in the transmission of tantric scriptures.

Also known as Benares, one of the oldest cities of northeast India on the banks of the Ganges, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh. It was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kāśi, and in the Buddha’s time it had been absorbed into the kingdom of Kośala. It was an important religious center, as well as a major city, even during the time of the Buddha. The name may derive from being where the Varuna and Assi rivers flow into the Ganges. It was on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī that the Buddha first taught the Dharma, in the location known as Deer Park (Mṛgadāva). For numerous episodes set in Vārāṇasī, including its kings, see The Hundred Deeds , Toh 340.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva.

According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.