A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.

Butön Rinchen Drup (bu ston rin chen grub, 1290–1364), a great scholar at the monastery of Zhalu (zha lu) whose compiling of lists of translated works contributed to the emergence of the Kangyur and Tengyur collections.

The name of a goddess who is equated with Remati, the speech emanation of Mahākālī in Praises to Śrīdevī Kālī.

This term denotes the presence of discursive or conceptual thought processes. Their absence or deconstruction is characteristic of the realization of emptiness or ultimate reality.

In Praises to Śrīdevī Kālī (Toh 671), this appears to be a pattern on the strap of Mahākālī’s saddle that represents punishing beings who violate their vows ( samayas ).

Interpreted variously‍—given the many connotations of both dharma and dhātu‍‍—as the realm, element, or nature of phenomena, reality, or truth. Generally taken to denote the entirety of phenomena and particularly their nature as a synonym of other terms designating the ultimate. In Tibetan, instances of the Sanskrit dharmadhātu with this range of meanings (rendered chos kyi dbyings) are distinguished from instances of the same Sanskrit term with its rather different meaning related to mental perception in the context of the twelve sense sources and eighteen elements (rendered chos kyi khams).

The kinnara king Druma is a well-known figure in canonical Buddhist literature, where he frequently appears, mostly in minor roles. For example, King Druma appears in The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Toh 113), where he is one of the four kinnara kings attending the Buddha’s teaching. He is also included in The King of Samādhis Sūtra (Toh 127), where he arrives with his queens to make an offering of his music to the Buddha. He is also a bodhisattva who teaches and displays a profound understanding of the doctrine of emptiness in The Questions of the Kinnara King Druma (Toh 157), where his future awakening is also prophesied by the Buddha.(His name has been translated into Tibetan both as “sdong po” and “ljon pa.”)

A form of Mahākālī in Praises to Śrīdevī Kālī. She is also a popular goddess within the Brahmanical and Hindu traditions, where she is identified as Pārvatī, the wife of Śiva.

The eight classes of divine and demonic beings can vary across sources. It would appear that this set of eight beings is a Tibetan convention as there is no known Sanskrit equivalent for the term for this set as a whole, or an established Indic taxonomy based on eight types of such beings.

One of the four primary categories of ritual activities. It involves summoning and controlling a desired target.

“Vast ocean” translates the Tibetan rgya mtsho’i klong, which in turn is attested as a translation of the Sanskrit vaḍabāmukha, “the mare’s mouth.” In Indic mythology, this is the name for an underwater cavity at the bottom of the sea that contains a fire known as vaḍabāgni (“the mare’s fire”). At some point, this fire will erupt and consume the entire world.

A Buddhist framework for the path to awakening. It consists of (1) the path of accumulation (sambhāramārga; tshogs lam), (2) the path of preparation (prayogamārga; sbyor lam), (3) the path of seeing (darśanamārga; mthong lam), (4) the path of cultivation (bhāvanāmārga; sgom lam), and (5) the path of no further learning (aśaikṣamārga; mi slob lam).

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

Literally the “grounds” in which qualities grow, and also meaning “levels.” Here it refers specifically to levels of enlightenment, especially the ten levels of the enlightened bodhisattvas.

One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology. Counted among the six heavens of the desire realm, it is traditionally located atop Mount Meru, just above the terrace of the abodes of the Four Great Kings. It is reigned over by Śakra and thirty-two other gods.

In general, this is the mental factor of discerning the specific qualities of a given object and whether it should be accepted or rejected. As the sixth of the six perfections, it refers to the profound understanding of the emptiness of all phenomena‍—the realization of ultimate reality.

A fearsome, wrathful goddess venerated in both non-Buddhist and Buddhist traditions. Here an epithet for Śrīdevī Mahākālī.

A great ṛṣi.

A staff with a single tip or one with three points and a freshly decapitated head, a rotting head, and a skull skewered on its shaft.

The name of a city and its surrounding territory. Traditionally identified as the land of the rākṣasas (srin yul).

An epithet of Yama.

An epithet for the deity Śiva.

A formula of words or syllables that are recited aloud or mentally in order to bring about a magical or soteriological effect or result. The term has been interpretively etymologized to mean “that which protects (trā) the mind (man)”.

A class of potentially demonic spirit being.

A Tibetan class of female nonhuman beings that are perhaps related to medicine (sman) and medical rites. There are numerous subcategories and specific groupings of menmo in Tibetan literature.

One of Mahākālī’s hand implements, said to symbolize her treasure of merit. Symbolically, mongooses are associated with wealth, are often described as spitting jewels, and are depicted with a jewel in their mouth.

The name of a nāga king.

The name of a king of the kumbhāṇḍas.

Those of other religious or philosophical orders, contemporary with the early Buddhist order, including Jains, Jaṭilas, Ājīvikas, and Cārvākas. Tīrthika (“forder”) literally translates as “one belonging to or associated with (possessive suffix –ika) stairs for landing or for descent into a river,” or “a bathing place,” or “a place of pilgrimage on the banks of sacred streams” (Monier-Williams). The term may have originally referred to temple priests at river crossings or fords where travelers propitiated a deity before crossing. The Sanskrit term seems to have undergone metonymic transfer in referring to those able to ford the turbulent river of saṃsāra (as in the Jain tīrthaṅkaras, “ford makers”), and it came to be used in Buddhist sources to refer to teachers of rival religious traditions. The Sanskrit term is closely rendered by the Tibetan mu stegs pa: “those on the steps (stegs pa) at the edge (mu).”

The name of a gandharva king.

The immense wish-fulling tree that stands in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

The name of one of the groves of the deities of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. In Praises to Śrīdevī Kālī , Pāruṣyaka is identified as a vast grove (tshal chen po) on the summit of Mount Sumeru.

A class of nonhuman beings that, like several other classes of nonhuman beings, take spontaneous birth. Ranking below rākṣasas, they are less powerful and more akin to pretas. They are said to dwell in impure and perilous places, where they feed on impure things, including flesh. This could account for the name piśāca, which possibly derives from √piś, to carve or chop meat, as reflected also in the Tibetan sha za, “meat eater.” They are often described as having an unpleasant appearance, and at times they appear with animal bodies. Some possess the ability to enter the dead bodies of humans, thereby becoming so-called vetāla, to touch whom is fatal.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

The name of a goddess who is said to be Mahākālī’s body emanation.

The name of a goddess who accompanies Mahākālī. At times, the two goddesses appear to be conflated into one, but at other times they are clearly two distinct goddesses. In this text Remati is also said to be Mahākālī’s speech emanation.

A term that denotes a range of ritual activities that fall under the four broad categories of pacification (śānti; zhi ba), enriching (pauṣṭika; rgyas pa), enthralling (vaśya; dbang byed), and assault (abhicāra; mngon spyod).

An ancient Indian spiritual title, often translated as “sage” or “seer.” The title is particularly used for divinely inspired individuals credited with creating the foundations of Indian culture. The term is also applied to Śākyamuni and other realized Buddhist figures.

A wrathful form of Śiva.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

Literally, in Sanskrit, “coming together.” Samaya refers to precepts given by the teacher, the corresponding commitment by the pupil, and the bond that results, which can also be the bond between the practitioner and the deity or a spirit. It can also mean a special juncture or circumstance, or an ordinary time or season.

The name of a goddess who is said to be an emanation of Mahākālī’s body, speech, and mind.

A handbag that holds the seeds of various diseases carried by nonhuman beings associated with causing disease.

An epithet for Śrīdevī Mahākālī. According to The Tantra of the Flaming Ḍākinī (Toh 842), Śrīdevī Mahākālī prays that in her next life she may meet the Buddha and become the sovereign goddess of the desire realm. When this becomes reality, she becomes known as “Sovereign Goddess of the Desire Realm‍.”

A fearsome, wrathful goddess who in the Buddhist tradition is a protector of the teachings. In Tibet, she is widely propitiated and takes on many forms, many of which are known through the Tibetan name Palden Lhamo (dpal ldan lha mo), which translates the Sanskrit śrīdevī. She is most often portrayed riding on a donkey and adorned with various wrathful ornaments and hand implements.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A term for ten types of wicked beings (sdig spyod bcu) or adversaries (dgra bo) suitable to be killed.

Abstaining from killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, lying, uttering divisive talk, speaking harsh words, gossiping, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views.

The manifestation body (sprul sku, nirmāṇakāya), the enjoyment body (longs spyod sku, sambhogakāya), and the truth body (chos sku, dharmakāya).

Usually synonymous with the three realms of desire, form, and formlessness. Sometimes it means the realm of devas above, humans on the ground, and nāgas below ground.

The three realms that contain all the various kinds of existence in saṃsāra: the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.

The desire realm, form realm, and formless realm. Also referred to as the “three realms” (khams gsum).

A synonym for the phenomenal realm ( dharmadhātu ; chos dbyings).

A class of serpent-like beings.

The name of the first ground (sa, bhūmi) that one attains after completing the path of accumulation (tshogs lam, sambhāramārga) and the path of application (sbyor lam, prayogamārga), and that one enters through path of seeing (mthong lam, darśanamārga) the ultimate.

“Goddess of Speech”; the name of a goddess in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist sources.

The name of a yakṣa king who is typically included among the Four Great Kings of the four cardinal directions.

The name of a king of the garuḍas.

Vajrapāṇi means “Wielder of the Vajra.” In the Pali canon, he appears as a yakṣa guardian in the retinue of the Buddha. In the Mahāyāna scriptures he is a bodhisattva and one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha.” In the tantras, he is also regarded as an important Buddhist deity and instrumental in the transmission of tantric scriptures.

A brahmin who praises Mahākālī.

The name of an asura king.

A term that at once refers to a type of mantra or dhāraṇī and to the deity it invokes, thereby reflecting their inseparability. A vidyā is typically applied to female deities, and is often, but not exclusively, used for worldly goals in esoteric ritual.

An epithet for Śrīdevī Mahākālī. According to The Tantra of the Flaming Ḍākinī (Toh 842), Śrīdevī Mahākālī was at one point tricked into marriage with the rākṣasa king Daśagrīva and so becomes known as “Wife of the Demon.”

A general term for the features and behaviors that invoke fear and danger. The term is also used in this text to refer to the body of rites otherwise known as abhicāra (mngon spyod), which include rites for aggressively overcoming adversarial influences, both human and nonhuman.

The lord of death.

Another name for Yama, the lord of death.

An epithet for Śrīdevī Mahākālī. According to The Tantra of the Flaming Ḍākinī (Toh 842), Śrīdevī Mahākālī was originally born as a divine girl called Red Cāmuṇḍī. Her father was Mahādeva, her mother was Umadevī, and her brother at that time was called Yama Mahākāla. Hence, she is “Yama’s Sister.”