See “patience.” Also translated here as “receptive to” and “endure.”

See “karma.”

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

The five aggregates (Skt. skandha) of form, feeling, perception, formative predispositions, and consciousness. On the individual level, the five aggregates refer to the basis upon which the mistaken idea of a self is projected. They are referred to as the “bases for appropriation” (Skt. upādāna) insofar as all conceptual grasping arises based on these aggregates.

The highest of the five pure abodes (Skt. śuddhāvāsa ) among the form realms.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.

The ambrosia (also translated here as “immortality”) that prevents death or spiritual death (hence the Tibetan term means “crushes spiritual death”). The Sanskrit term literally means immortality. It is often used metaphorically to mean the Dharma.

A tathāgata, his names mean "infinite life;" another name for Amitābha, “Infinite Light.”

Name of a bodhisattva.

Also means “grasping” or “clinging,” but has a particular meaning as the ninth of the twelve links of dependent arising, between craving (Skt. tṛṣṇā, Tib. sred pa) and becoming or existence (Skt. bhava, Tib. srid pa). In some texts, four types of appropriation are listed: of desire (Skt. rāga), of view (Skt. dṛṣṭi), of rules and observances as paramount (Skt. śīla­vrata­parāmarśa), and of belief in a self (Skt. ātmavāda).

A member of the class of celestial female beings known for their great beauty.

The father of prince Puṇyaraśmi.

Sometimes translated “worthy one,” a term for one who is liberated and who has extirpated the passions (Skt. kleśa, Tib. nyon mongs). The Tibetan rendering, following the traditional Sanskrit semantic gloss ari han, understands the term as “foe (Tib. dgra) destroyer (Tib. bcom pa).”

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

In Indic literature, the term śramaṇa is used to denote a spiritual practitioner who emphasizes the renunciation of worldly life for a life of austerity and monasticism. Buddhism and Jainism, among others, are considered śramaṇa traditions. The term is often used in contrast to brāhmaṇa, “brahmin,” in reference to a follower of the Vedic tradition, which emphasizes a householder lifestyle as the basis for spiritual practice.

In Mahāyāna doctrine, the Sanskrit bodhicitta refers to the aspiration of bodhisattvas to attain enlightenment for themselves and others.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

Acts of self-deprivation or mortification practiced for spiritual advancement. This mode of extreme religious practice was rejected by the Buddha, who cultivated them prior to his full awakening and found they brought little benefit.

A hot hell, the lowest of all hell realms (Skt. naraka). The worst possible place for rebirth.

The four bases of magical power (Skt. ṛddhipāda, Tib. rdzu ’phrul gyi rkang pa bzhi) are: (1) concentration through will (Skt. chanda, Tib. ’dun pa); (2) concentration through vigor (Skt. vīrya, Tib. brtson ’grus); (3) concentration through the mind (Skt. citta, Tib. bsam pa); (4) concentration through investigation (Skt. mīmāṃsā, Tib. dpyod pa).

Name of a bodhisattva.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

Momordica monadelpha, which has a bright red fruit.

A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.

Standard epithet for a bodhisattva.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

The four qualities that are said to result in rebirth in the paradise of Brahmā, and were a practice already prevalent before the Buddha Śākyamuni’s teaching, are limitless loving kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity.

The thirty-two major and eighty minor marks of a buddha.

The term can mean “teachings of the Buddha” or “buddha qualities.” In the latter sense, it is sometimes used as a general term, and sometimes it refers to sets such as the ten strengths, the four fearlessnesses, the four discernments, the eighteen distinct qualities of a buddha, and so forth; or, more specifically, to another set of eighteen: the ten strengths; the four fearlessnesses; mindfulness of body, speech, and mind; and great compassion.

The field of activity of a specific buddha, manifested through the power of their merit, wisdom, and aspirations.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

A sign or characteristic, which refers to the generic appearance of an object, in distinction to its secondary characteristics or anuvyañjana. Advertence toward the generic sign and secondary characteristics of an object furnishes the conception or nominal designation (Skt. saṃjñā) of that object, which may in turn generate clinging or rejection and ultimately lead to suffering.

Also translated here as “hypocrisy.”

One of the groves of the Trāyastriṃśa (Heaven of the Thirty-Three) gods.

Meditative concentration is defined as one-pointed abiding in an undistracted state of mind, free from afflicted mental states. Four states of meditative concentration are identified as being conducive to birth within the world system of form, each of which has three phases of intensity. In the context of the Mahāyāna, meditative concentration is the fifth of the six transcendent perfections.

Refers to all phenomena produced by causes and conditions.

Also translated here as “enlightened conduct of bodhisattvas.”

Also translated here as “eloquence.”

Eighth of the twelve links of dependent origination. Craving is often listed as threefold: craving for the desirable, craving for existence, and craving for non-existence.

An Indian paṇḍita who was resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

Refers to liberating insight into the nature of reality and the meditative practice leading to such insight. One of the two basic forms of Buddhist meditation, the other being calm abiding (Skt. śamatha).

The Buddha’s jealous, scheming cousin.

Literally, “retention” (the ability to remember), or “that which retains, contains, or encapsulates,” this term refers to mnemonic formulas or codes possessed by advanced bodhisattvas that contain the quintessence of their attainments, as well as the Dharma teachings that express them and guide beings toward their realization. They are therefore often described in terms of “gateways” for entering the Dharma and training in its realization, or “seals” that contain condensations of truths and their expression. The term can also refer to a statement or incantation meant to protect or bring about a particular result. Also translated here as “retention.”

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

The term dharma conveys ten different meanings, according to Vasubandhu’s Vyākhyā­yukti. The primary meanings are as follows: the doctrine taught by the Buddha (Dharma); the ultimate reality underlying and expressed through the Buddha’s teaching (Dharma); the trainings that the Buddha’s teaching stipulates (dharmas); the various awakened qualities or attainments acquired through practicing and realizing the Buddha’s teaching (dharmas); qualities or aspects more generally, i.e., phenomena or phenomenal attributes (dharmas); and mental objects (dharmas). In this text, it generally refers either to the Buddhist teachings or to spiritual qualities. Also translated here as “quality” and “phenomenon.”

A teaching on the state of realization in which a practitioner no longer perceives reified entities.

A synonym for emptiness or the ultimate nature of reality (dharmatā). This term is interpreted variously‍—given the many connotations of dharma/chos‍—as the sphere, element, or nature of phenomena, reality, or truth. In this text it is used with this general, Mahāyāna sense, not to be confused with its rather different meaning in the Abhidharma as one of the twelve sense fields (Skt. āyatana) and eighteen elements (Skt. dhātu ), and comprising all objects of mental perception.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The fourth of the six perfections, it is also among the seven branches of enlightenment, the five abilities, the four bases of magical power, and the five powers . Also translated here as “effort.”

Morally virtuous or disciplined conduct and the abandonment of morally undisciplined conduct of body, speech, and mind. One of the six perfections of the bodhisattva. Also rendered here as “ethical rules” and “ethical discipline.” See also Alexander Csoma de Kőrös Translation Group, trans., The Dedication Fulfilling All Aspirations (Toh 285), note 6.

The fourth of the six perfections, it is also among the seven branches of enlightenment, the five abilities, the four bases of magical power, and the five powers . Also translated here as “diligence.”

Right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Commonly designates the eighteen elements of sensory experience (the six sense faculties, their six respective objects, and the six sensory consciousnesses), although the term has a wide range of other meanings. Along with skandha and āyatana, it is one of the three major categories in the taxonomy of phenomena in the sūtra literature.

Also translated here as “courage.”

See “patience.” Also translated here as “acceptance” and “receptive to.”

Also translated here as “conduct of a bodhisattva.”

According to the traditional Abhidharma understanding of cyclical time, a great eon (Skt. mahākalpa) is divided into eighty lesser or intervening eons. In the course of one great eon, the external universe and its sentient life takes form and later disappears. During the first twenty of the lesser eons, the universe is in the process of creation and expansion (Skt. vivartakalpa); during the next twenty, it persists; during the third twenty, it is in the process of destruction or contraction (Skt. samvartakalpa); and during the last quarter of the cycle, complete destruction has occurred and nothing exists.

The first of two extreme views that distort perception of reality. Eternalism is the view that there is a permanent, enduring self that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next.

Literally, where cattle (Skt. go) range (Skt. cara), it refers to the mind’s sphere of operations, the cognitive domain.

Also translated here as “unimpaired.”

A junior monk who lives with and under the guidance of a senior monk.

These comprise the gods and humans of the higher realms within saṃsāra, plus the animals, hungry ghosts, and denizens of hell of the lower realms.

Also translated here as “stainless.”

Second of the twelve links of dependent origination. This term denotes the deep-seated predispositions inherited from past actions and experiences, some of which function in association with mind, while others do not. Formative predispositions are critical to the Buddhist understanding of the causal dynamics of karma and conditioning. It is the collection of such countless predispositions by afflicted mental states that constitutes the obscuration of misconceptions concerning the known range of phenomena, the total eradication of which occurs only when full enlightenment or buddhahood is achieved.

According to traditional Buddhist cosmology, our universe consists of a central mountain, known as Mount Meru or Sumeru, surrounded by four island continents (dvīpa), one in each of the four cardinal directions. The Abhidharmakośa explains that each of these island continents has a specific shape and is flanked by two smaller subcontinents of similar shape. To the south of Mount Meru is Jambudvīpa, corresponding either to the Indian subcontinent itself or to the known world. It is triangular in shape, and at its center is the place where the buddhas attain awakening. The humans who inhabit Jambudvīpa have a lifespan of one hundred years. To the east is Videha, a semicircular continent inhabited by humans who have a lifespan of two hundred fifty years and are twice as tall as the humans who inhabit Jambudvīpa. To the north is Uttarakuru, a square continent whose inhabitants have a lifespan of a thousand years. To the west is Godānīya, circular in shape, where the lifespan is five hundred years.

The attributes of a practitioner: the first three are garments, food, and bedding, and the fourth is dedication to the path of liberation.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

Name of a mountain range, better known as Gandhamādana.

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The first of the six or ten perfections, often explained as the essential starting point and training for the practice of the others.

Literally “world protectors.” They are the same as the four Mahārājas, the Four Great Kings of the quarters (Tib. rgyal chen bzhi), namely, Vaiśravaṇa, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Virūḍhaka, and Virūpākṣa, whose mission is to report on the activities of humankind to the gods of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven (Heaven of the Thirty-Three) and who have pledged to protect the practitioners of the Dharma. Each universe has its own set of four.

One of the thirty-two marks of a great being. It consists of a soft, long, fine, coiled white hair between the eyebrows capable of emitting an intense bright light. Literally, the Sanskrit ūrṇā means “wool hair,” and kośa means “treasure.”

In Sanskrit lit. “the 3x10” (in round numbers for 3x11) Trāyastriṃśa heaven, to be found on the top of Mount Meru, the abode of Indra and the thirty-three gods.

See “māra.”

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance.

Also translated here as “cheating.”

The ambrosia that prevents death or spiritual death (hence the Tibetan term means “crushes spiritual death”). The Sanskrit term literally means immortality. It is often used metaphorically to mean the Dharma.

Name of a nāga.

The sixth of the six perfections, it refers to the profound understanding of the emptiness of all phenomena, the realization of ultimate reality.

Name of a bodhisattva.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

Name of a bodhisattva.

An Indian Kashmiri paṇḍita who was resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of several sūtras. He is also the author of the Nyāya­bindu­piṇḍārtha (Toh 4233), which is contained in the Tibetan Tengyur collection.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

In Buddhist literature refers to a mythical bird whose call is said to be far more beautiful than that of all other birds, and so compelling that it can be heard even before the bird has hatched. The call of the kalaviṅka is thus used as an analogy to describe the sound of the discourse of bodhisattvas as being far superior to that of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, even before bodhisattvas attain awakening. In some cases, the kalaviṅka also takes on mythical characteristics, being depicted as part human, part bird. It is also the sixteenth of the eighty designs on the palms and soles of a tathāgata.While it is equated to an Indian bird renowned for its beautiful song, there is some uncertainty regarding the identity of the kalaviṅka; some dictionaries declare it to be a type of Indian cuckoo (probably Eudynamys scolopacea, also known as the asian koel) or a red and green sparrow (possibly Amandava amandava, also known as the red avadavat).

An evil king.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

Generally meaning “work,” or “action,” it is an important concept in Buddhist philosophy as the cumulative force of previous actions, which determines present experience and will determine future existences. In this text, it is left untranslated when this specific conception of moral causation is implied.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the standard epithets of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

Refers to transgressions of moral conduct as prescribed by Buddhist vows.

This refers to the bodhisattva levels leading to enlightenment.

The state of freedom from suffering and saṃsāra that is the goal of the Buddhist path.

Another name for Indra, Śakra.

Lord of the Yāma heaven, lowest of the group of four heavens immediately above the peak of Mount Meru.

One of the four immeasurables of the Mahāyāna, known in early Buddhism as “pure abodes” (Skt. brahmavihāra), which comprise (1) loving kindness, (2) compassion, (3) empathetic joy, and (4) impartiality. Immeasurable loving kindness arises from the wish for all living beings to have happiness and the causes of happiness.

A collective name for the realms of animals, hungry ghosts, and denizens of the hells.

A wife of the bodhisattva in his former rebirth as Sudaṃṣṭra.

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

In Sanskrit and Pāli, literally “maker of death”; a demon in Buddhism who is the personification of evil and spiritual death. He notoriously assailed the future Buddha as he sat beneath the Bodhi tree and similarly impedes the spiritual progress of Buddhist practitioners in general. Used in plural form, the term can refer to the members of Māra’s army or any other demonic force that impedes spirituality.

Also translated here as “worldly concerns.”

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

This term denotes the presence of discursive or conceptual thought processes. Their absence or deconstruction is characteristic of the realization of emptiness or ultimate reality.

Wholesome tendencies imprinted in the mind as a result of positive and skillful thoughts, words, and actions that ripen in the experience of happiness and well-being. According to the Mahāyāna, it is important to dedicate the merit of one’s wholesome actions to the benefit of all sentient beings, ensuring that others also experience the results generated by the positive actions.

This is the faculty that enables the mind to maintain its attention on a referent object, counteracting the arising of forgetfulness, which is a great obstacle to meditative stability. Together with alertness, mindfulness is one of the two indispensable factors for the development of calm abiding (Skt. śamatha). Also translated here as “recollection.”

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

An Indian paṇḍita who was resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

Fourth of the twelve links of dependent origination in Buddhism, this term refers to the constituents of a living being: Sanskrit nāma (“name”) is typically considered to refer to the mental constituents of the person, while rūpa (“form”) refers to the physical. While the the two together can thus be seen as referring to mind and matter, in practice this is a shorthand term for the five skandhas.

An epithet of Māra.

Literally, the “nature of phenomena,” or “phenomena themselves.” The quality or condition of things as they really are, which eludes appropriation by conceptual thought.

The Buddhist view that there is no self in persons or phenomena that exists independently of the five psycho-physical aggregates.

Has the sense of notions involving nominal designation, the imputation of names to things.

This refers to the conceptual designation of things using linguistic signs.

The state of knowing all possible and actual states of affairs of past, present, and future (total omniscience) or knowing all that is most relevant to soteriology, the basic nature of reality (essential omniscience).

Paranirmitavasavatti, the highest of the group of four heavens immediately above the peak of Mount Meru.

Different kinds of partridge: swamp partridge (Skt. tittiri), grey partridge (Skt. kapiñjala), Greek partridge (Skt. jīva).

The third of the six transcendent perfections. As such it can be classified into three modes: the capacity to tolerate abuse from sentient beings, to tolerate the hardships of the path to buddhahood, and to tolerate the profound nature of reality. Regarding the Sanskrit term dharmakṣāṇti, it can refer either to a set of ways one becomes “receptive” to key points of the Dharma, or it can be an abbreviation of anutpattika­dharma­kṣāṇti, “receptivity to the unborn nature of phenomena.”

One of the standard epithets of the Buddha Śākyamuni, and other buddhas as well.

See “Dharma.”

Enumerated as five, they are the powers of faith, diligence, mindfulness, meditative absorption, and insight. In the standard enumeration of ten powers, they are distinctive qualities of buddhas and bodhisattvas, concerning mostly their clairvoyant knowledge.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

The rules of conduct that lead to liberation.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths. The son of king Arciṣmān.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A newly ordained monk who appeals to the Buddha for teachings.

Name of a city built for Puṇyaraśmi’s enjoyment by his father, King Arciṣmān.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The capital city of King Arciṣmān’s kingdom in Jambudvīpa.

An evil brahmin.

See “patience.” Also translated here as “endure” and “acceptance.”

This is the faculty that enables the mind to maintain its attention on a referent object, counteracting the arising of forgetfulness, which is a great obstacle to meditative stability. Together with alertness, recollection is one of the two indispensable factors for the development of calm abiding (Skt. śamatha). Also translated here as “mindfulness.”

The Sanskrit term buddhānusmṛti (Pali buddhānussati), meaning “mindfulness or recollection of the Buddha,” is a common practice in all Buddhist traditions that involves taking a buddha such as the Buddha Śākyamuni or Amitābha as one’s meditative object.

The physical remains or personal objects of a previous tathāgata, arhat, or other realized person that are venerated for their perpetual spiritual potency. They are often enshrined in stūpas and other public monuments so the Buddhist community at large can benefit from their blessings and power.

Literally, “retention” (the ability to remember), or “that which retains, contains, or encapsulates,” this term refers to mnemonic formulas or codes possessed by advanced bodhisattvas that contain the quintessence of their attainments, as well as the Dharma teachings that express them and guide beings toward their realization. They are therefore often described in terms of “gateways” for entering the Dharma and training in its realization, or “seals” that contain condensations of truths and their expression. The term can also refer to a statement or incantation meant to protect or bring about a particular result.

Non-Buddhist sectarians.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

Synonym for the entire trichiliocosm. In the Vimalakīrti­nirdeśa­sūtra (Toh 176) it is a separate pure abode. See Robert A. F. Thurman, trans. The Teaching of Vimalakīrti .

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

The community of followers of the Buddha’s teachings, particularly the monastics.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

Sometimes translated “sense bases” or “bases of cognition,” the term usually refers to the six sense faculties and their corresponding objects, i.e., the first twelve of the eighteen dhātus. Along with the skandhas and dhātus, one of the three major categories in the taxonomy of phenomena in the sūtra literature.

These are the seven precious branches of mindfulness (Skt. smṛti), discerning reality (Skt. dharma­pravicaya), effort (Skt. vīrya), joy (Skt. prīti), ecstasy (Skt. praśrabdhi), meditative absorption (Skt. samādhi), and equanimity (Skt. upekṣā). These seven form a part of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment.

The set of seven precious materials or substances includes a range of precious metals and gems, but their exact list varies. The set often consists of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, red pearls, emeralds, and white coral, but may also contain lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, diamonds, etc. The term is frequently used in the sūtras to exemplify preciousness, wealth, and beauty, and can describe treasures, offering materials, or the features of architectural structures such as stūpas, palaces, thrones, etc. The set is also used to describe the beauty and prosperity of buddha realms and the realms of the gods.In other contexts, the term saptaratna can also refer to the seven precious possessions of a cakravartin or to a set of seven precious moral qualities.

Faith, discipline, charity, knowledge, modesty, self-control, and wisdom.

Name of a Buddha of a previous eon.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The concept of skillful means is central to the understanding of the Buddha’s enlightened deeds and the many scriptures that are revealed contingent to the needs, interests, and mental dispositions of specific types of individuals. According to the Mahāyāna, training in skillful means collectively denotes the first five of the six transcendent perfections when integrated with wisdom, the sixth transcendent perfection, to form a union of discriminative awareness and means.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

During the life of the Buddha, Śrāvastī was the capital city of the powerful kingdom of Kośala, ruled by King Prasenajit, who became a follower and patron of the Buddha. It was also the hometown of Anāthapiṇḍada, the wealthy patron who first invited the Buddha there, and then offered him a park known as Jetavana, Prince Jeta’s Grove, which became one of the first Buddhist monasteries. The Buddha is said to have spent about twenty-five rainy seasons with his disciples in Śrāvastī, thus it is named as the setting of numerous events and teachings. It is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh in northern India.

Also translated here as “flawless.”

See “ten strengths.”

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

Pure abode, said of a heaven, or five heavens, in which dwell the gods so called. The pure abodes among the form realms, where only non-returners are reborn.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The superknowledges are listed as either five or six. The first five are divine sight, divine hearing, knowing how to manifest miracles, remembering previous lives, and knowing what is in the minds of others. A sixth, knowing that all defects have been eliminated, is often added. The first five are attained through concentration (Skt. dhyāna), and are sometimes described as worldly, as they can be attained to some extent by non-Buddhist yogis; while the sixth is supramundane and attained only by realization‍—by bodhisattvas, or according to some accounts, only by buddhas.

Name of a god.

Name of a god.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The ten strengths of a tathāgata: (1) knowledge of what is possible and what is not, (2) knowledge of how karmic deeds will ripen, (3) knowledge of the variety of elements, (4) knowledge of sentient beings’ inclinations, (5) knowledge of sentient beings’ inferior and superior faculties, (6) knowledge of the paths pursued by everyone, (7) knowledge of concentration, liberation, contemplation, and absorption, (8) remembering previous lives, (9) knowledge of the transference of consciousness at death and birth, and (10) knowledge of the cessation of defilements.

There are three physical virtues: saving lives, giving, and sexual propriety. There are four verbal virtues: truthfulness, reconciling discussions, gentle speech, and religious speech. There are three mental virtues: loving attitude, generous attitude, and right views. The whole doctrine is collectively called the “tenfold path of good action” (daśa­kuśala­karma­patha).

Another name of the Rāṣṭrapāla­paripṛcchā­sūtra.

Another name of the Rāṣṭrapāla­paripṛcchā­sūtra.

Another name of the Rāṣṭrapāla­paripṛcchā­sūtra.

Another name of the Rāṣṭrapāla­paripṛcchā­sūtra.

A collective name for the realms of animals, hungry ghosts, and denizens of the hells.

The Śrāvaka Vehicle, the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and the Bodhisattva Vehicle.

The formless world, the form world, and the desire world comprise the thirty-one planes of existence in Buddhist cosmology. Synonymous with three realms (trailoka).

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

The celestial realm where a bodhisattva is born before being reborn as a Buddha in the human realm. Second of the group of four heavens immediately above the peak of Mount Meru.

Refers to phenomena that are not produced by causes and conditions, such as nirvāṇa.

Also translated here as “faultless.”

One of the thirty-two signs of a great being. In its simplest form it is that the head has a heightened or pointed shape (like a turban). More elaborately it refers to a dome-shaped extension of the top of the head, or even to an invisible extension of immense height.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

Name of a bodhisattva.

The term stands for indestructibility and perfect stability. According to Indian mythology, the vajra is the all-powerful god Indra’s weapon, likened to a thunderbolt, which made him invincible. It also relates to the diamond, which is the hardest physical material.

Name of a bodhisattva.

A respectful form of address between monks, and also between lay companions of equal standing. It literally means “one who has a [long] life.”

One of the many standard titles or epithets of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The vows and texts pertaining to monastic discipline. One of the three piṭakas, or “baskets,” of the Buddhist canon, the one dealing specifically with the code of monastic discipline.

Name of a bodhisattva.

Name of a bodhisattva.

One of the Buddha’s former rebirths.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

A class of semidivine beings said to dwell in the north, under the jurisdiction of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. They are associated with water, fertility, and trees, and treasure, and are said to haunt or protect natural places as well as towns. Yakṣa can be malevolent or benevolent, and are known for bestowing wealth and other boons.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

The longest unit of distance in classical India. The lack of a uniform standard for the smaller units means that there is no precise equivalent, especially as its theoretical length tended to increase over time. Therefore it can mean between four and ten miles.