Saṃsāra, in being nothing but afflicted; its opposite is “purification” (vyavadāna).

The fivefold basic grouping of the components out of which the world and the personal self are formed.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

An optional set of thirteen practices that monastics can adopt in order to cultivate greater detachment. They consist of 1) wearing patched robes made from discarded cloth rather than from cloth donated by laypeople; 2) wearing only three robes; 3) going for alms; 4) not omitting any house while on the alms round, rather than begging only at those houses known to provide good food; 5) eating only what can be eaten in one sitting; 6) eating only food received in the alms bowl, rather than more elaborate meals presented to the Saṅgha; 7) refusing more food after indicating one has eaten enough; 8) dwelling in the forest; 9) dwelling at the root of a tree; 10) dwelling in the open air, using only a tent made from one’s robes as shelter; 11) dwelling in a charnel ground; 12) satisfaction with whatever dwelling one has; and 13) sleeping in a sitting position without ever lying down.

The king of Magadha and a great patron of the Buddha. His birth coincided with the Buddha’s, and his father, King Mahāpadma, named him “Essence of Gold” after mistakenly attributing the brilliant light that marked the Buddha’s birth to the birth of his son by Queen Bimbī (“Goldie”). Accounts of Bimbisāra’s youth and life can be found in The Chapter on Going Forth (Toh 1-1, Pravrajyāvastu).King Śreṇya Bimbisāra first met with the Buddha early on, when the latter was the wandering mendicant known as Gautama. Impressed by his conduct, Bimbisāra offered to take Gautama into his court, but Gautama refused, and Bimbisāra wished him success in his quest for awakening and asked him to visit his palace after he had achieved his goal. One account of this episode can be found in the sixteenth chapter of The Play in Full (Toh 95, Lalitavistara). There are other accounts where the two meet earlier on in childhood; several episodes can be found, for example, in The Hundred Deeds (Toh 340, Karmaśataka). Later, after the Buddha’s awakening, Bimbisāra became one of his most famous patrons and donated to the saṅgha the Bamboo Grove, Veṇuvana, at the outskirts of the capital of Magadha, Rājagṛha, where he built residences for the monks. Bimbisāra was imprisoned and killed by his own son, the prince Ajātaśatru, who, influenced by Devadatta, sought to usurp his father’s throne.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

One of the eight hot hells.

A thus-gone one of the past.

A member of the Indian priestly caste.

One of the eight hot hells.

A prince living in the past at the time of the buddha Merugandha.

The forest, located outside of Vārāṇasī where the Buddha first taught the Dharma.

A cousin of Buddha Śākyamuni who broke with him and established his own community. His tradition was still continuing during the first millennium ᴄᴇ. He is portrayed as engendering evil schemes against the Buddha and even succeeding in wounding him. He is usually identified with wicked beings in accounts of previous lifetimes.

A formula invoking a particular deity for a particular purpose; dhāraṇīs are longer than most mantras, and their applications are more specialized.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

Right view, intention, speech, actions, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.

Eighteen special features of a buddha’s behavior, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by other beings. They are generally listed as: (1) he never makes a mistake, (2) he is never boisterous, (3) he never forgets, (4) his concentration never falters, (5) he has no notion of distinctness, (6) his equanimity is not due to lack of consideration, (7) his motivation never falters, (8) his endeavor never fails, (9) his mindfulness never falters, (10) he never abandons his concentration, (11) his insight (prajñā) never decreases, (12) his liberation never fails, (13) all his physical actions are preceded and followed by wisdom (jñāna), (14) all his verbal actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (15) all his mental actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (16) his wisdom and vision perceive the past without attachment or hindrance, (17) his wisdom and vision perceive the future without attachment or hindrance, and (18) his wisdom and vision perceive the present without attachment or hindrance.

One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements (eye and form, ear and sound, nose and odor, tongue and taste, body and touch, mind and mental objects, to which the six consciousnesses are added).

A monk. Interlocutor of the Buddha in the Questions of Pūrṇa sūtra.

Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

Name of a demon who lived in the past.

A thus-gone one of the past.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

One of the eight hot hells.

Faith, mindfulness, diligence, concentration, and insight.

Divine sight, divine hearing, knowledge of the minds of others, remembrance of past lives, and ability to perform miracles. See “six higher perceptions,” the same list with the addition of “ability to destroy mental defilements,” which can only be attained by Buddhist practitioners.

Faith, mindfulness, diligence, concentration, and insight. Similar to the five faculties but differing in that they cannot be shaken by adverse conditions.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

A fundamental practice of Buddhist meditation: the close application of mindfulness to the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena.

Determination, discernment, diligence, and concentration.

The four levels of concentration of beings residing in the form realm.

Fearlessness in declaring that one has (1) awakened, (2) ceased all illusions, (3) taught the obstacles to awakening, and (4) shown the way to liberation.

Four types of relinquishment consisting in abandoning existing negative mind states, abandoning the production of such states, giving rise to virtuous mind states that are not yet produced, and letting those states continue.

A thus-gone one of the past.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

Name of Buddha Śākyamuni in a past life, when he was a merchant practicing bodhisattva conduct.

One of the eight hot hells.

Name of Buddha Śākyamuni in a past life, when he was a prince practicing bodhisattva conduct.

The second lowest of the six heavens of the desire realm, located on top of Mount Sumeru in the Buddhist cosmology.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

A king who lived in the past.

A grove or forest within the Veṇuvana near Rājagṛha, where Buddha Śākyamuni spent several monsoon retreats and delivered many Great Vehicle teachings. In other texts it is known as the Kalandakanivāsa or °nivāpa, the dwelling place or feeding ground of kalandaka‍—crows or other birds according to Tibetan renderings, but some Sanskrit and Pali sources suggest flying squirrels.

One of the members of a group of four monks described in the Vinaya as followers of Devadatta that attempted to create a schism in the Buddhist saṅgha.

A bodhisattva of the past.

One of the members of a group of four monks described in the Vinaya as followers of Devadatta that attempted to create a schism in the Buddhist saṅgha.

Past buddha who lived countless eons ago.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

One of the members of a group of four monks described in the Vinaya as followers of Devadatta that attempted to create a schism in the Buddhist saṅgha.

Name of the Buddha Śākyamuni in a past life, when he was a sage practicing bodhisattva conduct.

An ancient Indian kingdom that lay to the south of the Ganges River in what today is the state of Bihar. Magadha was the largest of the sixteen “great states” (mahājanapada) that flourished between the sixth and third centuries ʙᴄᴇ in northern India. During the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it was ruled by King Bimbisāra and later by Bimbisāra's son, Ajātaśatru. Its capital was initially Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir) but was later moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern-day Patna). Over the centuries, with the expansion of the Magadha’s might, it became the capital of the vast Mauryan empire and seat of the great King Aśoka.This region is home to many of the most important Buddhist sites, including Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained awakening; Vulture Peak (Gṛdhra­kūṭa), where the Buddha bestowed many well-known Mahāyāna sūtras; and the Buddhist university of Nālandā that flourished between the fifth and twelfth centuries ᴄᴇ, among many others.

Name of the Buddha Śākyamuni in a past life, when he was a king practicing bodhisattva conduct.

A senior student of Buddha Śākyamuni, famous for his austere lifestyle.

Alternate name for Maudgalyāyana, one of the closest disciples of the Buddha Śākyamuni, known for his miraculous abilities.

Dharma-preaching monk living at the time of the buddha King of All Qualities’ Light Rays.

Son of Śani, householder who lived in the past at the time of the buddha King of All Qualities’ Light Rays.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

One of the closest disciples of the Buddha Śākyamuni, known for his miraculous abilities.

A past buddha who lived countless eons ago.

A thus-gone one of the past.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

Reincarnation of Damaśrī, prince living in the past at the time of the buddha Merugandha.

Term that was first used in reference to the Buddha’s personal residence. Later, after the Buddha’s passing, the term came to denote the inner chamber of Buddhist monasteries in India, where a Buddha statue was housed to represent the Buddha’s residence at the monastery.

A personal preceptor and teacher.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

The purification of affliction (saṃkleśa).

Main interlocutor of the buddha in the Questions of Pūrṇa sūtra.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

One of the eight hot hells.

Indian sage or wise man (often a wandering ascetic or hermit).

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

One of the members of a group of four monks described in the Vinaya as followers of Devadatta that attempted to create a schism in the Buddhist saṅgha.

Householder who lived in the past at the time of the buddha King of All Qualities’ Light Rays.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

Mindfulness, discrimination, diligence, joy, pliability, absorption, and equanimity.

One of the three doors of liberation.

Divine sight, divine hearing, knowledge of the minds of others, remembrance of past lives, ability to perform miracles, and ability to destroy all mental defilements.

Reincarnation of Damaśrī, prince living in the past at the time of the buddha Merugandha.

Reincarnation of Damaśrī, prince living in the past at the time of the buddha Merugandha.

A thus-gone one of the past.

A thus-gone one of the past.

A hearer who lived in the past and was a disciple of the buddha Merugandha.

A thus-gone one of the past.

A spiritual teacher (sometimes more specifically the deputy or substitute of the upādhyāya ).

The ten strenghts of a buddha: reflection, intention, application, insight, aspiration, vehicle, conduct, manifestation, awakening, and turning the Dharma wheel.

The name, mentioned in the Questions of Pūrṇa sūtra, that Devadatta will receive upon reaching the fruition of a solitary buddha.

Emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness.

The three kinds of supernormal cognition among the six supernormal powers (六神通). Applied to buddhas they are called 三達, and applied to worthy ones they are called 三明. They are the power of divine vision (天眼通), whereby they can observe the full course of passage by sentient beings through the six destinies; the power of the knowledge of previous lifetimes (宿命通), (宿住通), whereby they know the events of countless kalpas of previous lifetimes experienced by themselves, as well as by all the beings in the six destinies; and the power of the extinction of contamination (漏盡通), whereby they completely extinguish all the afflictions of the three realms and thus are no longer subject to rebirth in the three realms. In the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (倶舍論) 27, the three are termed 住智識證明, 死生識證明, and 漏盡識證明 (Skt. tri-vidya, tisrovidyāḥ, traividya; Pāli ti-vijjā; Tib. rig pa gsum).

Name of a great city in the world, countless eons ago.

A series of parallel universes containing one billion worlds, according to traditional Indian cosmology.

The twelve causal links that perpetuate life in saṃsāra; starting with ignorance and ending with death.

A thus-gone one of the past.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

Also known as Benares, one of the oldest cities of northeast India on the banks of the Ganges, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh. It was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kāśi, and in the Buddha’s time it had been absorbed into the kingdom of Kośala. It was an important religious center, as well as a major city, even during the time of the Buddha. The name may derive from being where the Varuna and Assi rivers flow into the Ganges. It was on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī that the Buddha first taught the Dharma, in the location known as Deer Park (Mṛgadāva). For numerous episodes set in Vārāṇasī, including its kings, see The Hundred Deeds , Toh 340.

A bamboo grove or forest containing a monastery, north of Rājagṛha, where Buddha Śākyamuni spent several monsoon retreats and delivered many Great Vehicle teachings.

One of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures.

The qualities associated with the observance of ascetic practices.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the threedoors of liberation.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A person who has accomplished the final fruition of the path of the hearers and is liberated from saṃsāra.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

Reincarnation of Damaśrī, prince living in the past at the time of the buddha Merugandha.