Albizia lebbeck. A tall tree that can grow to 100 feet. Other common names include Indian walnut, lebbeck, lebbeck tree, flea tree, frywood, koko, and "woman’s tongue tree." The bark is used medicinally.

These palaces served as both residences and vehicles for deities.

Amyris agallocha. Also called agallochum and aloeswood. This is a resinous heartwood that has been infected by the fungus Phialophora parasitica. In India, agarwood is primarily derived from the fifteen Aquilaria (Aquilaria malaccensis) and nine Gyrinops species of lign-aloe trees.

Twelfth of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination.

Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.

The kingdom of yakṣas located on Mount Sumeru and ruled over by Kubera, also known as Vaiśravaṇa.

The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.

The Buddha in the western realm of Sukhāvatī, better known by his alternative name Amitābha. Not to be confused with the buddha of long life, Aparimitāyus, whose name has been rendered in Sanskrit as Amitāyus also. See also “Amitābha.”

The nectar of immortality possessed by the devas, it is used as a metaphor for the teaching that brings liberation.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

A nāga king.

According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.

A fierce goddess.(Toh 556 Degé: dung can; Toh 555: dung chen; Toh 555 Narthang: rung chen)

The Sanskrit ārya has the general meaning of a noble person, one of a higher class or caste. In Buddhist literature, depending on the context, it often means specifically one who has gained the realization of the path and is superior for that reason. In particular, it applies to stream enterers, once-returners, non-returners, and worthy ones (arhats) and is also used as an epithet of bodhisattvas. In the five-path system, it refers to someone who has achieved at least the path of seeing (darśanamārga).

The name of a certain kind of kalpa, literally meaning “incalculable.” The number of years in this kalpa differs in various sūtras that give a number. Also, twenty intermediate kalpas are said to be one asaṃkhyeya (incalculable) kalpa, and four incalculable kalpas are one great kalpa. In that case, those four incalculable kalpas represent the eons of the creation, presence, destruction, and absence of a world. Buddhas are often described as appearing in a second incalculable kalpa.

The seven branches of enlightenment are mindfulness, analysis of phenomena, diligence, joy, tranquility, samādhi, and equanimity.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

A yakṣa king.

A lake in a wilderness.(Toh 556: ’brog khong khong na yod)

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

The classical system of Indian medicine.

A king in the distant past.Bhagji Sanskrit: Baladaketu; Toh 557

An asura king. Indian literary sources describe how Bali wrested control of the world from the devas, establishing a period of peace and prosperity with no caste distinction. Indra requested Viṣṇu to use his wiles to gain back the world from him for the devas. Viṣṇu appeared as a dwarf asking for two steps of ground, was offered three, and then traversed the world in two steps. Bali, remaining faithful to his promise, accepted the banishment of the asuras into the underworld. A great Bali festival in his honor is held annually in South India. (Toh 555: ba li)

Commiphora wighti, or Commiphora mukul. The resin, also known as guggul gum, is obtained from the bark of the tree. When burned, the smoke is said to drive away evil spirits.”

Tenth of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination.

As this is distinguished from gorocanā (“cow bezoar”), this may be bezoar obtained from the head of an elephant, in distinction from that obtained from a cow. Used in Āyurveda for both external and oral application in treating worm infestation, pruritus (itching), psychiatric disorders, low digestion strength, and more.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

See “bhagavat.”

As specified in the Sanskrit, a conical or bowl-shaped kettledrum, with an upper surface that is beaten with sticks. The Tibetan and Chinese are not specific about the kind of drum it is.”

The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).

The term bhikṣuṇī, often translated as “nun,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term bhikṣu (to which the female grammatical ending ṇī is added) literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist nuns and monks‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a bhikṣuṇī follows 364 rules and a bhikṣu follows 253 rules as part of their moral discipline.For the first few years of the Buddha’s teachings in India, there was no ordination for women. It started at the persistent request and display of determination of Mahāprajāpatī, the Buddha’s stepmother and aunt, together with five hundred former wives of men of Kapilavastu, who had themselves become monks. Mahāprajāpatī is thus considered to be the founder of the nun’s order.

Literally the “grounds” in which qualities grow, and also meaning “levels.” Here it refers specifically to levels of enlightenment, especially the ten levels of the bodhisattvas.

This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.

Momordica monadelpha. A perennial climbing plant, the fruit of which is a bright red gourd. Because of its color it is frequently used in poetry as a simile for lips.

Eleventh of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination.

Parmelia perlata. A lichen used as a spice and in Āyurveda for the treatment of skin diseases, cough, asthma, kidney stones, painful urination, and localized swelling. Commonly called śaileya in Sanskrit.

More commonly known as the Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis).

The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.

The term can be understood to mean “great courageous one” or "great hero,” or (from the Sanskrit) simply “great being,” and is almost always found as an epithet of “bodhisattva.” The qualification “great” in this term, according to the majority of canonical definitions, focuses on the generic greatness common to all bodhisattvas, i.e., the greatness implicit in the bodhisattva vow itself in terms of outlook, aspiration, number of beings to be benefited, potential or eventual accomplishments, and so forth. In this sense the mahā- is closer in its connotations to the mahā- in “Mahāyāna” than to the mahā- in “mahāsiddha.” While individual bodhisattvas described as mahāsattva may in many cases also be “great” in terms of their level of realization, this is largely coincidental, and in the canonical texts the epithet is not restricted to bodhisattvas at any particular point in their career. Indeed, in a few cases even bodhisattvas whose path has taken a wrong direction are still described as bodhisattva mahāsattva.Later commentarial writings do nevertheless define the term‍—variably‍—in terms of bodhisattvas having attained a particular level (bhūmi) or realization. The most common qualifying criteria mentioned are attaining the path of seeing, attaining irreversibility (according to its various definitions), or attaining the seventh bhūmi.

A goddess. In Toh 555 called “goddess of the Bodhi tree.”

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

In addition to being the name of the great deity, “Brahmā” (sometimes “Mahābrahmā”) can mean all the devas that live in Brahmā’s paradise.

A member of the highest of the four castes in Indian society, which is closely associated with religious vocations.

The Tibetan translates both stūpa and caitya with the same word, mchod rten, meaning “basis” or “recipient” of “offerings” or “veneration.” Pali: cetiya.A caitya, although often synonymous with stūpa, can also refer to any site, sanctuary or shrine that is made for veneration, and may or may not contain relics.A stūpa, literally “heap” or “mound,” is a mounded or circular structure usually containing relics of the Buddha or the masters of the past. It is considered to be a sacred object representing the awakened mind of a buddha, but the symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies throughout the Buddhist world. Stūpas continue to be erected today as objects of veneration and merit making.

“Circular mass”; there are at least three interpretations of what this name refers to. In the Kṣitigarbha Sutra it is a mountain that contains the hells. In that case, it is equivalent to the Vaḍaba submarine mountain of fire, which is also said to be the entrance to the hells. More commonly, it is the name of the outer ring of mountains at the edge of the flat disk that is the world, with Sumeru in the center. This is also equated with Vaḍaba, as it is the heat of the mountain range that evaporates the ocean, thus preventing it from overflowing. Jambudvīpa, the world of humans, is a continent in the ocean to Sumeru’s south. However, Cakravāḍa is also used to mean the entire disk, including Meru and the paradises above it. An alternate form is Cakravāla.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

Cassia fistula. An Indian tree with pods that are used medicinally.

A fierce goddess.(Toh 555: ma rungs pa)

The lowest and most disparaged class of people within the caste system of ancient India, they fall outside of the caste system altogether due to their low rank in society.

A fierce goddess.(Toh 555: gdug pa)

A yakṣa king.

A fierce goddess.(Toh 555: lag na dbyug thogs)

Elettria cardamomum. A digestive medicine in Āyurveda.

A yakṣa king.

This is a product of the chir pine, also known as the long leaf pine: Pinus roxbhurghii or Pinus longifolia. It is used in Āyurvedic medicine. Also known in Sanskrit as śrīveṣṭa, which appears to be the version in the manuscript from which the Tibetan was transliterated.

Cinnamonum tamale. Specifically, the Indian species of cinnamon, which has medicinal properties.

A yakṣa king.

Fifth of the five aggregates and third of the twelve links of dependent origination.

This is another name for Agni, the god of fire.(Toh 557: sbyin sreg za)

The sixth of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination, which is the contact between the sensory consciousnesses and organs with sensory objects.

Saussurea lappa. This is a 3–4-foot-tall shrub. Alternatively identified as Saussurea costus and Costus speciosus.

A yellow stone that forms within the stomach of ruminants and is held to have medicinal properties.

Eighth of the twelve links of dependent origination. Craving is often listed as threefold: craving for the desirable, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence.

Cheilocostus speciosus. This rhizome is used in Āyurvedic medicine to treat fever, rash, asthma, bronchitis, and intestinal worms.

A resin from the tree known as sarjarasa, sarja, white dammar, or Indian copal tree (Vateria indica). The white dammar resin is used in incense and Āyurvedic medicine.

This is the Śākya Daṇḍapāṇi who, in the Lalitavistara Sūtra ( The Play in Full ), is described as the father of Gopā, the Buddha’s wife. There are others of that name, such as the brother of the Buddha’s mother, Mayā, and also the uncle of the Buddha’s other wife, Yaśodhara. However, that Daṇḍapāṇi was a member of the neighboring Koliya clan. There is also a contrasting account of a Śakya Daṇḍapāṇi who is said to have been a follower of Devadatta and who was dissatisfied by the Buddha’s answers when he met him in Kapilavastu, the capital of the Śākya clan. His nickname, “Cane Holder,” is said to be because he always carried a golden cane.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

A female being in the paradises from the base of Mount Sumeru upward. Also can refer to a female deity or goddess in the human world. See also “deva.”

In its earliest use it generally meant that though the corporeal body of the Buddha had perished, his “body of the Dharma” continued. It also referred to the Buddha’s realization of reality, to his qualities as a whole, or to his teachings as embodying him. It later came to be synonymous with enlightenment or buddhahood, a “body” that can only be “seen” by a buddha.

A yakṣa king.

A synonym for the ultimate nature of reality. The term is interpreted variously and can be translated according to context as “Dharma realm,” “Dharma element,” “the realm of phenomena,” or “the element of phenomena.”

In early Buddhism a section of the saṅgha would be bhāṇakas (“proclaimers”), who memorized the teachings. Particularly before the teachings were written down, and were transmitted orally, the bhāṇakas were the key means of preserving of the teachings. Various groups of bhāṇakas specialized in memorizing and reciting specific sets of sūtras or the vinaya.

A great bodhisattva, residing in a divine city called Gandhavatī, who teaches the Prajñāpāramitā three times a day. He is known for becoming the teacher of the bodhisattva Sadāprarudita, who decides to sell his flesh and blood in order to make offerings to him and receive his teachings. This story is told in The Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Toh 10, ch. 85–86). It can also be found quoted in several works, such as The Words of My Perfect Teacher (kun bzang bla ma’i zhal lung) by Patrul Rinpoche.

One of the Four Mahārājas, he is the guardian deity for the east and lord of the gandharvas.

The goddess of the earth. (Toh 555: sra ba)

The principal buddha of the northern direction.

A set of eighty bodily characteristics borne by buddhas and universal emperors. They are considered “minor” in terms of being secondary to the thirty-two major marks of a great being.These can be found listed, for example, in Prajñāpāramitā sūtras (see Toh 9, Toh 10, Toh 11) or in The Play in Full (Toh 95, 7.100) and many other sūtras.

A cosmic period of time, sometimes equivalent to the time when a world system appears, exists, and disappears. According to the traditional Abhidharma understanding of cyclical time, a great eon (mahākalpa) is divided into eighty lesser eons. In the course of one great eon, the universe takes form and later disappears. During the first twenty of the lesser eons, the universe is in the process of creation and expansion; during the next twenty it remains; during the third twenty, it is in the process of destruction; and during the last quarter of the cycle, it remains in a state of empty stasis. A fortunate, or good, eon (bhadrakalpa) refers to any eon in which more than one buddha appears.

Trigonella corniculata.

The mythological flower of the fig tree, said to appear on rare occasions, such as the birth of a buddha. The actual fig tree flower is contained within the fruit.

The meaning of this term varies according to context. As one of the skandhas it refers to various mental activities. In terms of the twelve phases of dependent origination it is the second, “formation” or “creation,” referring to activities with karmic results.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

The ancient Indian army was composed of four branches (caturaṅga)‍—infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.

Also known as olibanum, this is a resin from trees of the genus Boswellia, in this case, Boswellia serrata, “Indian frankincense.” It is also known as salai and śallakī, tilakalka, vṛścika, and turuṣka.

A mountain north of the Himalayas, said to be fifty yojanas from Mount Kailash. In other sūtras, it is translated as spos ngad can, spos ngad ldang, or spos nad ldan. Mount Gandhamardan in Orissa, India, was at one time a center for Buddhist study and practice.(In other sūtras, this is translated as spos ngad can; spos ngad ldang; or spos nad ldan)

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

A yakṣa king.

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

A bodhisattva.(Toh 555: gser mdzod)

A wife of the Buddha Śākyamuni when he was Prince Siddhartha, and the daughter of Daṇḍapāni.

This term, although commonly translated as “appropriation,” also means “grasping” or “clinging,” but it has a particular meaning as the ninth of the twelve links of dependent origination, situated between craving (tṛṣṇā, sred pa) and becoming or existence (bhava, srid pa). In some texts, four types of appropriation (upādāna) are listed: that of desire (rāga), view (dṛṣṭi), rules and observances as paramount (śīla­vrata­parāmarśa), and belief in a self (ātmavāda).

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: gangs ri)

A rākṣasī with hundreds of children whom the Buddha converted into a protector of children.

The higher cognitions are listed as either five or six. The first five are divine sight, divine hearing, knowing how to manifest miracles, remembering previous lives, and knowing what is in the minds of others. A sixth, knowing that all defects have been eliminated, is often added. The first five are attained through concentration (Skt. dhyāna), and are sometimes described as worldly, as they can be attained to some extent by non-Buddhist yogis, while the sixth is supramundane and attained only by realization.

The first of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination. “Ignorance” has also been used to render moha (gti mug).

Manifestations of the Buddha, particularly as the principal buddha of an age, that are perceivable by ordinary beings.

The deity that is also called Mahendra, “lord of the devas,” who dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. He is also known as Śakra (Tib. brgya byin, “hundred offerings”). Śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu: "one who has performed a hundred sacrifices." The highest Vedic sacrifice was the horse sacrifice, and there is a tradition that Indra became the lord of the gods through performing them.

Mesua ferrea. Evergreen tree up to 100-feet tall. Known as Assam ironwood, Ceylon ironwood, Indian rose chestnut, Cobra’s saffron, and nāgakesara. The flowers are large and fragrant, with four white petals and a yellow center.

A river.

The younger son of Jalavāhana and Jalāmbuja­garbhā.

The elder son of Jalavāhana and Jalāmbuja­garbhā.

The wife of Jalavāhana.

A learned physician in the distant past and son of Jaladhara; who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. He was the Buddha in a previous life.

A tathāgata.(Toh 555: gser tog ’od)

The rivers that flow down from the immense lake at the foot of the legendary Jambu tree, including the Ganges. The fruits of that tree are made of gold and are carried down by the rivers through Jambudvīpa. Such gold is considered the best kind.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A head merchant and physician in the distant past.(Toh 555: chu ‘dzin)

An epithet for a buddha meaning “victorious one.”

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: ’dam bu rgyal)

A yakṣa king and the son of Vaiśravaṇa.(Toh 555: rtag tu rgyal)

A deity in the Trāyastriṃśa paradise.(Toh 556: ’bar ba’i khyad par gyi gzi brjid kyi rgyal po; Toh 555: mchog tu rgyal ba’i ’od)

Also called red avadavats, strawberry finches, and kalaviṅgka sparrows. Dictionaries have erroneously identified them as cuckoos. Outside India, kalaviṅgka birds have evolved into a mythical half-human bird. The avadavat is a significant bird in the Ganges plain and renowned for its beautiful song. An alternate form of the Sanskrit is kalapiṅka.

A spiritual teacher who can contribute to an individual’s progress on the spiritual path to awakening and act wholeheartedly for the welfare of students.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: ’dod mchog)

A son of the king Suvarṇa­bhujendra.

A son of the king Suvarṇa­bhujendra.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: kha dog ser po)

According to the Chinese translation, this is the family name (姓) of the brahmin master Vyākaraṇa, an interlocutor in The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.

An asura king.(Toh 555: bong bu dpung; Toh 556, Degé: rab tshim byed; Toh 557, Yunglo and Peking: rab sil byed)

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

The ruling caste in the traditional four-caste hierarchy of India, associated with warriors, the aristocracy, and kings.

A yakṣa king; also known as Kubera.

A fierce goddess.(Toh 555: so brtsegs ma)

A clan with its capital Vaiśalī, in present-day Bihar, north of the Ganges. Their capital was a place where the Buddha had many followers when they were an independent republic.

Oil from the seed of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum).

A yakṣa king.

This appears to refer to the great circles of mountains that enclose a thousand worlds, each with its own Cakravāla.

A prince in the past, the middle son of King Mahāratha.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: mchog tu rgyal ba)

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: nag po che)

A tathāgata.(Toh 555: sgron ma chen po’i ’od)

The Buddha’s mother’s sister and his stepmother. She was the mother of Nanda, whom the Buddha later inspired to become a monk, as recorded in two sūtras bearing his name and elsewhere. She became the first bhikṣuṇī after the death of the Buddha’s father.

A prince in the past, the eldest son of King Mahāratha.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: pra na li chen)

Literally means “great king.” In addition to referring to human kings, this is also the epithet for the four deities on the base of Mount Meru, each one the guardian of his direction: Vaiśravaṇa in the north, Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east, Virūpākṣa in the west, and Virūḍhaka in the south.

One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology, lowest among the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu, ’dod khams). Dwelling place of the Four Great Kings (caturmahārāja, rgyal chen bzhi), traditionally located on a terrace of Sumeru, just below the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Each cardinal direction is ruled by one of the Four Great Kings and inhabited by a different class of nonhuman beings as their subjects: in the east, Dhṛtarāṣṭra rules the gandharvas; in the south, Virūḍhaka rules the kumbhāṇḍas; in the west, Virūpākṣa rules the nāgas; and in the north, Vaiśravaṇa rules the yakṣas.

A king in the past.

A prince in the past. the youngest son of King Mahāratha. A previous life of the Buddha, when he decided to give his body to a tigress.Toh 556: snying stobs chen po

An epithet of Śiva; sometimes refers specifically to one of the forms of Śiva or to Rudra.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

The range of mountains in West India, also called the Western Ghats, known for its sandalwood forests.

A lord of the yakṣas.Note that the Tibetan translation gives nor bu bzang for both Māṇibhadra and Maṇibhadra. (Toh 555: rin chen bzang)

A yakṣa general, the brother of Kubera.Note that the Tibetan translation gives nor bu bzang for both Māṇibhadra and Maṇibhadra. (Toh 555: rin chen bzang)

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: nor bu gtsug)

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: spre’u rnams kyi ni rgyal po (erroneously combining this name with the following name))

The Buddha’s mother, more commonly called Māyādevī.

A nāga king.

A title that, like buddha, is given to someone who has attained the realization of a truth through his own contemplation and not by divine revelation.

“Lord of sages”; an epithet for the Buddha.

Also called subhaga in Sanskrit. Derived from a gland on the musk deer.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

A yakṣa king.(The Tibetan appears to have been translating from a manuscript that had nārāyaṇa .)

Goddess of the Nairañjana River, near which the Buddha practiced asceticism and later attained enlightenment.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: na ku la)

Fourth of the twelve links or phases of dependent origination in Buddhism, this term refers to the constituents of a living being: Sanskrit nāma (“name”) is typically considered to refer to the mental constituents of the person, while rūpa (“form”) refers to the physical. While the the two together can thus be seen as referring to mind and matter, in practice this is a shorthand term for the five skandhas.

An asura king; this is the name of Indra’s principal enemy among the asuras. In Buddhist mythology, Namuci appears as a drought-causing demon, and is also a name of Māra, the principal opponent of the Buddhadharma.(Toh 555: phrag chen)

A nāga king.

An alternate name for Viṣṇu (khyab ’jug).(Toh 555: mthu bo che)

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: Nīlakaṇṭha, ne gan)

In Sanskrit, the term nirvāṇa literally means “extinguishment” and the Tibetan mya ngan las ’das pa literally means “gone beyond sorrow.” As a general term, it refers to the cessation of all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence, as well as to the state in which all such rebirth and suffering has permanently ceased.More specifically, three main types of nirvāṇa are identified. (1) The first type of nirvāṇa, called nirvāṇa with remainder (sopadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), is the state in which arhats or buddhas have attained awakening but are still dependent on the conditioned aggregates until their lifespan is exhausted. (2) At the end of life, given that there are no more causes for rebirth, these aggregates cease and no new aggregates arise. What occurs then is called nirvāṇa without remainder ( anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa), which refers to the unconditioned element (dhātu) of nirvāṇa in which there is no remainder of the aggregates. (3) The Mahāyāna teachings distinguish the final nirvāṇa of buddhas from that of arhats, the nirvāṇa of arhats not being considered ultimate. The buddhas attain what is called nonabiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhitanirvāṇa), which transcends the extremes of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, i.e., existence and peace. This is the nirvāṇa that is the goal of the Mahāyāna path.

Cyperus rotundus. Its tubers are used in Āyurveda.

Bletilla hyacinthina, hyacinth orchid. See Ludvik 2007, 310. Or possibly Rhizoma iridis. The root is said to resemble an arm, while the leaves resemble swords, and therefore there is a folktale of it having originated from Indra cutting off a yakṣa’s arm.

Butea frondosa or Butea monosperma. A tree that grows up to 15 meters tall and has bright red flowers. Other names include flame of the forest, riddle tree, Judas tree, parrot tree, bastard teak, dhak (in Hindi), palas (in Hindi), porasum (in Tamil), and khakda (in Gujarati). There is a tradition of combining its leaves together to make a plate for food.

One of the fifteen lands in ancient India at the time of the Buddha. This was at the western end of the Ganges basin, corresponding in the present time to an area in the western part of Uttar Pradesh.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: pañ tsi ka)

This term is used to refer to the main trainings of a bodhisattva. Because these trainings, when brought to perfection, lead one to transcend saṃsāra and reach the full awakening of a buddha, they receive the Sanskrit name pāramitā, meaning “perfection” or “gone to the farther shore.” They are usually listed as six: generosity, correct conduct (or discipline), patience, diligence, meditation (or concentration), and wisdom; four additional perfections are often added to this, totalling ten perfections: skillful methods, prayer, strength, and knowledge.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: zas sbyin)

Faith, mindfulness, diligence, samādhi, and wisdom.

An asura king who waged a thousand-year war against the devas and was for a time victorious. He was the grandfather of Bali. Also known as Prahlādana.(Toh 556: rab tshim byed; Toh 557, Yunglo, and Peking: rab sil byed. Toh 555: bong bu dpung.)

A Vedic deity who is particularly seen as being the god of animals, especially cattle, which he is said to have created.(Toh 555: ’jig rten mgon po)

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: pra ma li chung)

The name of ten thousand future buddhas.(Toh 555: zhal dang spyan rnam par dag cing / ut+pa la’i dri’i ri mo; prasanna­vadanotpala­gandha­kūṭa)

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

A set of deities, each guarding a certain direction. Most commonly these are Indra (Śakra) for the east, Agni for the southeast, Yama for the south, Sūrya or Nirṛti for the southwest, Varuṇa for the west, Vāyu (Pavana) for the northwest, Kubera for the north, and Soma (Candra), Iśāni, or Pṛthivī for the northeast.

Name of the park where the Goddess Śrī dwells, not far from Alakāvati, the kingdom of the great king Vaiśravaṇa.

A yakṣa lord.

One of the twenty-eight asterisms or constellations that the sun passes through during the course of a year, which are “lunar mansions” in the plane of the sky. It is composed of three star systems: Gamma Cancri, Delta Cancri, and Theta Cancri. In the Western zodiac it is equivalent to the very end of Cancer and nearly half of Leo‍—in other words, the end of July and the first part of August.

A buddha in the distant future who is Rūpyaprabha, the son of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu, in the time of Śākyamuni.(Toh 555: gser tog ‘od; Suvarṇaketuprabha)

A tathāgata.(Toh 555: gser brgya’i ’od kyi rnying po)

An asura king said to cause eclipses.

The Buddha Śākyamuni’s son, who became the first novice monk and a prominent member of his monastic saṅgha.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: rin chen gtsug phud)

The principal buddha of the southern direction.

A buddha, teacher of the goddess Śrī.(Toh 555: bai DUr+ya dang gser gyi ri bo rin po che’i me tog snang ba spal gyi yon tan rgya mtsho; )

A buddha in the distant past.(Toh 555: rin chen gtsug phud)

A dharmabhāṇaka in the distant past who eventually became the Buddha Akṣobhya.(Yunglo, Lithang, Peking, Narthang, and Cone: rin chen sogs, rin chen sogs pa)

Arsenic sulphide, which consists of bright orange-red soft crystals. It is also called “ruby sulphur” and “ruby of arsenic.” A number of Sanskrit synonyms include yavāgraja, pākya, mansil, manoguptā, nāgajihivikā, golā, śilā, kunṭī, and naipālī.

An exceptional power of mental retention. However, according to context, dhāraṇī can also mean sentences or phrases for recitation that are said to hold the essence of a teaching or meaning.

An ancient Indian spiritual title, often translated as “sage” or “seer.” The title is particularly used for divinely inspired individuals credited with creating the foundations of Indian culture. The term is also applied to Śākyamuni and other realized Buddhist figures.

The name of a bodhisattva, central to the narrative of this sūtra, who has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. (In chapter 12, this is also the name a king in the distant past.)

The name of a king in the distant past. (Also the name of a bodhisattva, central to the narrative of this sūtra.)

The older son of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu.

The younger son of the bodhisattva Ruciraketu.

A bodhisattva famous for his quest for the Dharma and for his devotion to the teacher. It is told that Sadāprarudita, in order to make offerings to the bodhisattva Dharmodgata and request the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, sets out to sell his own flesh and blood. After receiving a first set of teachings, Sadāprarudita waits seven years for the bodhisattva Dharmodgata, his teacher, to emerge from meditation. When he receives signs this is about to happen, he wishes to prepare the ground for the teachings by settling the dust. Māra makes all the water disappear, so Sadāprarudita decides to use his own blood to settle the dust. He is said to be practicing in the presence of Buddha Bhīṣma­garjita­nirghoṣa­svara. His name means "Ever Weeping", on account of the numerous tears he shed until he found the teachings. His story is told in detail by the Buddha in The Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines (Toh 10, ch. 85–86), and can be found quoted in several works, such as The Words of My Perfect Teacher (kun bzang bla ma’i zhal lung) by Patrul Rinpoche.(Toh 555: rtag tu bshums)

Crocus sativus.

The principal nāga king in The Samādhirāja Sūtra and The Questions of the Nāga King Sāgara. This is also said to be another name for Vaṛuna, the god of the oceans.

A title that, like "buddha," is given to those who have attained realization through their own contemplation and not by divine revelation.

Indian Buddhist name for either the four-continent world in which the Buddha Śākyamuni appeared, or a universe of a thousand million such worlds. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world having to endure suffering. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not unbearable,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

Name of the ancient tribe in which the Buddha was born as a prince; their kingdom was based to the east of Kośala, in the foothills near the present-day border of India and Nepal, with Kapilavastu as its capital.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.

Shorea robusta. The dominant tree in the forests where it occurs.

A world realm in the distant future.(Toh 555: dbang po’i tog mngon par ‘phags pa )

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

Presently classed as one of the eight principal bodhisattvas, he is distinct from the primordial buddha with the same name in the Tibetan Nyingma tradition. He is prominent in the Gaṇḍa­vyūha, and also in The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Toh 113, Saddharma­puṇḍarīka) and The White Lotus of Compassion Sūtra (Toh 111, Mahā­karuṇā­puṇḍarīka­sūtra).

A yakṣa general.

A state of involuntary existence conditioned by afflicted mental states and the imprint of past actions, characterized by suffering in a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. On its reversal, the contrasting state of nirvāṇa is attained, free from suffering and the processes of rebirth.

An asura king. (Toh 555: sdom po pa)

“A perfect buddha.” A buddha who teaches the Dharma, as opposed to a pratyekabuddha, who does not teach.

Though often specifically reserved for the monastic community, this term can be applied to any of the four Buddhist communities‍—monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen‍—as well as to identify the different groups of practitioners, like the community of bodhisattvas or the community of śrāvakas. It is also the third of the Three Jewels (triratna) of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Community.

The goddess of wisdom, learning, and music.

A Licchavī youth.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: bde ba’i ri)

A fierce goddess.(Toh 556: sems can kun gyi gzi ’phrog ma)

The seventh of the twelve phases of dependent origination and the second of the five skandhas. It refers to nonconceptual pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral sensations as a result of sensory experiences.

When associated with the seven heavenly bodies, and therefore the seven days of the week, these are ruby for the sun, moonstone or pearl for the moon, coral for Mars, emerald for Mercury, yellow sapphire for Jupiter, diamond for Venus, and blue sapphire for Saturn. There are variant lists not associated with the heavenly bodies but retaining the number seven, which include gold, silver, and so on.

See “seven jewels.”

Prosopis cineraria. A tree believed to be auspicious due to the power of its purification properties.

The Buddha’s speech is said to have sixty aspects and sometimes sixty-four. The list of sixty, as given in Maitreyanātha’s Mahāyāna­sūtrālaṃkara, are (1) ripening, (2) smooth, (3) direct, (4) cogent, (5) correct, (6) stainless, (7) clear, (8) harmonious, (9) proper, (10) undefeatable, (11) meaningful, (12) taming, (13) gentle, (14) kind, (15) completely taming, (16) pleasing, (17) refreshing, (18) soothing, (19) gladdening, (20) blissful, (21) fulfilling, (22) worthwhile, (23) meaningful, (24) comprehensive, (25) reassuring, (26) inspiring, (27) enlightening, (28) instructive, (29) logical, (30) pertinent, (31) exact, (32) powerful, (33) fearless, (34) unfathomable, (35) majestic, (36) melodious, (37) sustaining, (38) long-lasting, (39) auspicious, (40) authoritative, (41) exhortative, (42) selfless, (43) confident, (44) omniscient, (45) whole, (46) complete, (47) certain, (48) desireless, (49) exhilarating, (50) pervasive, (51) stimulating, (52) continuous, (53) consistent, (54) multilingual, (55) adaptive, (56) reliable, (57) timely, (58) calm, (59) pervasive, and (60) perfecting.

The Indian god of war.(Toh 555: phrag chen)

The deity of the moon.

Nardostachys jatamansi. Also called “nard,” “nardin,” and “muskroot.” It is of the valerian family and grows in the Himalayas. Its rhizome is the source of an aromatic, amber-colored oil.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

The great goddess Śrī, better known as Lakṣmī, who promises to aid those who recite this sūtra and to ensure its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She dwells in a palace in the paradise of Alakāvati.

The “highest” of the four formless realms, which have no location other than where the meditator passed away.

The five strengths are a stronger form of the five powers: faith, mindfulness, diligence, samādhi, and wisdom. See also “ten strengths.”

The Tibetan translates both stūpa and caitya with the same word, mchod rten, meaning “basis” or “recipient” of “offerings” or “veneration.” Pali: cetiya.A caitya, although often synonymous with stūpa, can also refer to any site, sanctuary or shrine that is made for veneration, and may or may not contain relics.A stūpa, literally “heap” or “mound,” is a mounded or circular structure usually containing relics of the Buddha or the masters of the past. It is considered to be a sacred object representing the awakened mind of a buddha, but the symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies throughout the Buddhist world. Stūpas continue to be erected today as objects of veneration and merit making.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: khab spu)

The Buddha Śākyamuni’s father.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A king in the distant past.(Toh 555: lha’i dbang phyug gi ’od)

The god of the sun.

A yakṣa king.(Perhaps the original Tibetan was nyi bshes. Toh 557 Yunglo: gnyi bshes. Toh 556 Lithang and Peking: gnyis bshes. Toh 556 Degé and Toh 557 Cone and Urga: gnyen bshes, Toh 555: nyi ma’i gnyen)

The Buddha’s previous life as a cakravartin in the distant past.

A king in the distant past.

“Golden Banner.” The palace of the goddess Śrī, also known as Lakṣmī.

A buddha in the distant future who is Rūpyaketu, the son of Ruciraketu, in the time of Śākyamuni.(Toh 555: gser dang rin po che’i ri bo’i rgyal po )

A world realm in the distant future.(Toh 555: gser ‘od)

A tathāgata.

A bodhisattva with the same name as the title of the sūtra.(Toh 555; gser gyi ’od)

A tathāgata.(Toh 555: gser gyi me tog ’od zer rgyal mtshan)

A buddha in the distant future who is the bodhisattva Ruciraketu in the time of Śākyamuni.(Suvarṇa­ratnākaracchatra­kūṭa; Toh Degé 556: gser ri rin chen ‘byung gnas gdugs brtegs, Suvarṇaparvataratnākarachattrakūṭa; Toh 555: gser gdugs rin po che brtsegs pa )

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: su bar na dang ke śa (incorrectly dividing the name into two names))

Acorus calamus. a plant of marshes and wetlands, native to India. There are a number of variant Sanskrit names for this plant. Its leaves, stem, and roots are used in Āyurvedic medicine.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The ten strengths are (1) the knowledge of what is possible; (2) the knowledge of the ripening of karma; (3) the knowledge of the variety of aspirations; (4) the knowledge of the variety of natures; (5) the knowledge of the different levels of capabilities; (6) the knowledge of the destinations of all paths of rebirth; (7) the knowledge of various states of meditation; (8) the knowledge of remembering previous lives; (9) the knowledge of deaths and rebirths; and (10) the knowledge of the cessation of outflows.

The three realms of desire, form, and formlessness.

The paradise of Śakra, also known as Indra, on the summit of Sumeru. The name means “Thirty-Three,” from the thirty-three principal deities that dwell there. The fifth highest of the six paradises in the desire realm.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

A nāga king.

A man who has taken the layperson’s vows.

A woman who has taken the layperson’s vows.

One of the thirty-two marks of a great being. It consists of a soft, long, fine, coiled white hair between the eyebrows capable of emitting an intense bright light. Literally, the Sanskrit ūrṇā means “wool hair,” and kośa means “treasure.”

As one of the Four Mahārājas he is the lord of the northern region of the world and the northern continent, though in early Buddhism he is the lord of the far north of India and beyond. Also known as Kubera, he is the lord of yakṣas and a lord of wealth.

This term generally indicates indestructibility and stability. In the sūtras, vajra most often refers to the hardest possible physical substance, said to have divine origins. In some scriptures, it is also the name of the all-powerful weapon of Indra, which in turn is crafted from vajra material. In the tantras, the vajra is sometimes a scepter-like ritual implement, but the term can also take on other esoteric meanings.

Vajrapāṇi means “Wielder of the Vajra.” In the Pali canon, he appears as a yakṣa guardian in the retinue of the Buddha. In the Mahāyāna scriptures he is a bodhisattva and one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha.” In the tantras, he is also regarded as an important Buddhist deity and instrumental in the transmission of tantric scriptures. (Toh 555: rdo rje’i thal mo)

A mountain.

Valeriana wallichii. Specifically Indian valerian, also known as tagara and tagar.

A yakṣa king.(Toh 555: rgyal po)

A yakṣa king. The name means “Lord of Rain.”(To 555: char pa’i dbang po)

The name of the deity of water. In the Vedas, Varuṇa is an important deity and in particular the deity of the sky, but in later Indian tradition he is the god of only the water and the underworld. The Tibetan does not attempt to translate his name, but instead has “god of water.”

The god of the air and the winds.

The king of the asuras. Also translated as bzang ris.(Dege 556, Peking, Narthang, and Lhasa: thag bzangs; Degé 557: thag bzangs)

A respectful form of address between monks, and also between lay companions of equal standing. It literally means “one who has a [long] life.”

A class of beings that typically haunt charnel grounds and enter into and animate corpses. Hence, the Tibetan translation means “risen corpse.”

Andropogon muricatus, Andropogon zizanioides. A type of grass.

More often vidyā (literally “knowledge”) is used to mean “a mantra” and is synonymous with that term, but it is usually translated into Tibetan as rig pa’i gsang sngags, which could be back-translated as vidyāmantra) to make it clear that it is a mantra and not “knowledge.”

A tathāgata.(Toh 555: dri ma med pa’i ’od zer rin po che’i tog (Vimala­raśmiratna­ketu); Toh 556: dri ma med par ‘bar ba rin chen ‘od zer snang ba’i tog (Vimala­jvala­ratna­raśmiprabhā­ketu); Sanskrit ms.: Ratnaśikhin )

A world realm in the distant future.(Toh 555: rnam dag tog, Viśuddhaketu, where it is the name of Rūpyaketu in the lifetime that he attains buddhahood)

One of the Four Mahārājas, he is the guardian of the southern direction and the lord of the kumbhāṇḍas.

One of the Four Mahārājas, he is the guardian of the western direction and traditionally the lord of the nāgas.

One of the primary gods of the Brahmanical tradition, he is associated with the preservation and continuance of the universe.(Toh 555: khyab ’jug)

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

The brahmin master, interlocutor in The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.

Goshenite: pure beryl without the impurities that give it its various colors.

Nymphaea pubescens. The night-blossoming water lily, sometimes referred to as a “night lotus.” It can be white, pink, or red.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

A female yakṣa.

The lord of death.

The longest unit of distance in classical India. The lack of a uniform standard for the smaller units means that there is no precise equivalent, especially as its theoretical length tended to increase over time. Therefore, it can indicate a distance of between four and ten miles.