The third Degé king, Pönchen A Nga (mid-fifteenth to early sixteenth century), was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-third generation. He had two sons (though here it mentions seven), of whom the elder, Joden Namkha Lhunsang, took monastic vows and the younger, Yangyal Pal, took over the Degé kingdom. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

Also known by his Sanskrit name, Śāntarakṣita (725–88), he was a Bengali monk and scholar and the first abbot at Samyé monastery. He was one of the most important figures in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.

A Kashmiri paṇḍita who was invited to Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of a number of sūtras.

The great tantric master who helped establish Buddhism in Tibet. He would later become the central figure of the Nyingma tradition where he is known as Guru Rinpoché.

The seventeenth of the twenty-seven constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology. In Tibetan it is known as Lhatsam (lha mtshams). This constellation is symbolized by the lotus.

Also known as Ga Anyen Dampa Künga Drakpa (rga a gnyan dam pa kun dga’ grags pa, 1230–1303), he was a student of Sakya Paṇḍita.

A vernacular language of northern India in the medieval period, in use between the fifth and twelfth century.

Arjuna is a central protagonist in the Sanskrit epic, the Mahābhārata. He is the third among the five sons of Pāṇḍu.

Āryadeva (third century ᴄᴇ) was a direct student of Nāgārjuna and an influential writer on Middle Way philosophy.

The historical Indian king of the Maurya dynasty who ruled over most of India ca. 268–232 ʙᴄᴇ. His name means “without sorrow.”

A central figure in the second spread of Buddhism from India to Tibet, Atiśa was born as a prince in the region of Bengal in 982 and passed away in Tibet in 1054.

This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.Here appears to refer to local mountain guardian deities.

A Kashmiri paṇḍita who was invited to Tibet during the late eight and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of a number of sūtras.

The first Degé king, Bothar Lodrö Topden (late fourteenth to mid-fifteenth century), was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-first generation. He is remembered for establishing the site that would later become the center of the Degé kingdom. He had two sons, Lama Palden Sengé and Gyaltsen Bum. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

The son of a Kashmiri merchant who was one of the earliest translators in Tibet.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Buton Rinchen Drub (bu ston rin chen grub, 1290–1364) was the abbot of Zhalu monastery and one of Tibet’s most famous scholars and historians.

Cakrasaṃvara is a deity from the highest yoga tantras and is especially popular among the new schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

Cāṇakya (375–283 ʙᴄᴇ) was an ancient Indian polymath.

The Cāṇakyarājanīti­śāstra (Toh 4334) by Cāṇakya (fourth century ʙᴄᴇ).

Toh 431.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

A Tibetan translator of grammatical texts from the late eighth through the early ninth century. A common alternate spelling of his name is lce khyi ’brug.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Lived from 1210–89 and was the seventh abbot of Narthang monastery, serving from 1250 until his death.

It is believed that the term “Tongku” is derived from the Chinese dong jing (東京) or “Eastern capital” but came to refer to the Chinese lands east of Tibet. Use of this term is attested as early as 960 ᴄᴇ, before the creation of the modern political designation “China,” but it was used as an epithet for various Chinese empires over the course of centuries. For more on this term, see van Schaik 2013.

An area of central Tibet.

Chokro Lui Gyaltsen was a renowned translator during the imperial period.

See “Drogön Chögyal Phakpa.”

A Tibetan translator during the imperial period.

See “sixth Shamar.”

Chomden Rikpai Raldri (bcom ldan rig pa’i ral gri, 1227–1305) was a prominent scholar based at Narthang monastery who compiled an inventory of translated Buddhist texts and guided the compilation of the Old Narthang manuscript Kangyur (no longer extant), which is considered the first Kangyur compiled in Tibet. He was a student of Chim Chenpo Namkha Drak and the teacher of Jamgak Pakṣi.

See also “Chom Ralpa.”

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

A monastery in Tsang, located west of present-day Shigatse.

An epithet of Tibet. Similar to Land of Snows (gangs can ljongs).

A traditional unit of length, measured from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger.

Along with Kongpo and Powo, Dakpo is one of the three main regions of southeastern Tibet.

See “Jampa Phuntsok.”

A Kashmiri paṇḍita who was invited to Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of a number of sūtras.

A manuscript translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines that appears to have been named after Langdarma (glang dar ma u dum btsan), the king of Tibet who succeeded his brother Ralpachen and is traditionally blamed for the decline of Buddhism in Tibet in the late ninth century.

A son of Karchen Jangchup Bum.

The name of a kingdom in eastern Tibet. Its name literally means “happiness and goodness.”

A Tibetan imperial-era catalog of translated Buddhist scripture. According to Situ Paṇchen, compiled after the Phangthangma.

Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyalpo (1110–70) was one of the three foremost students of Gampopa and the founder of the Pakdru Kagyü school. His younger brother was Kathokpa Dampa Deshek.

A Tibetan translator during the imperial period.

The god of medicine from the Indian Ayurvedic tradition.

A monk at the monastery of Latö Olgö who produced copies of the Vinaya.

Eighth- to ninth-century Tibetan monk, preceptor, and translator.

A title used for the emperors of the Tibetan imperial period.

Here the “divine mandate” or “mandate of heaven” (天命) refers to the political and religious concept used in China to characterize the divine right to rule of emperors.

Eastern Tibet.

The people of the Apo Dong clan are said to have originated from Minyak (mi nyag), an ancient empire known to the Mongols as Tangut and to the Chinese as Xixia. According to The Treasure of the Ancestral Clans of Tibet, they are known for possessing great might and hence for being rulers. Their element is earth, and their spirit animal (bla zog) is the deer.

One of the three sons of the fourth Degé king.

The region of Dotö, or “upper Do” usually refers to the Kham ( khams ) region of eastern Tibet.

The people of the Sekhyung Dra clan are said to have originated from Shangshung (zhang zhung), an ancient kingdom corresponding roughly to the province of greater Ngari that was later absorbed by the Tibetan empire. According to The Treasure of the Ancestral Clans of Tibet, they are known for being astute and hence rich and prosperous. Their element is iron, and their spirit animal (bla zog) is the mare.

An umbrella term for the languages of South India.

The Drichu is one of the four great rivers of Eastern Tibet. It is known further downstream as the Yangtze (Ch. Chang Jiang, “Long River”), and is famed as the longest river in Asia. It flows in a southerly direction a little to the west of Degé, which is situated on one of its tributaries. These upper reaches of the Yangtze are known in Chinese by the name Jinsha Jiang (“Golden Sand River”).

Drigung is an area outside of Lhasa home to Drigung Thil monastery, the seat of the Drigung Kagyü lineage.

Also known as Phakpa Lodro Gyaltsen (1235–80), he was the Imperial Preceptor in the court of Kublai Khan. He was also the nephew of Sakya Paṇḍita and is remembered as one of the five patriarchs of the Sakya lineage.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

The twenty-second of the twenty-seven constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology. Here it corresponds to the seventh month of the Tibetan calendar.

The people of the Athang Dru clan are said to have originated from Sumpa (sum pa), an ancient land that corresponds roughly to the province of Amdo that was later absorbed by the Tibetan empire. According to The Treasure of the Ancestral Clans of Tibet, they are known for being people of action and hence fierce toward their enemies. Their element is water, and their spirit animal (bla zog) is the yak.

A prominent Nyingma lama active in the fourteenth century.

Duryodhana is one of the main antagonists in the Sanskrit epic, the Mahābhārata.

The period from the seventh to the ninth century when the Buddhist teachings first spread throughout Tibet.

The eight auspicious symbols are the precious parasol, the auspicious golden fish, the wish-fulfilling treasure vase, the exquisite lotus blossom, the conch shell of renown, the glorious endless knot, the ever-flying banner of victory, and the all-powerful wheel.

Eighteen groups enumerated in the Catalog, associated with the Go ancestral lineage.

“The emperor Mañjughoṣa” is a general epithet for the Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty. See Yongzheng.

Ngor Ewaṃ Chöden is an important monastery near Shigatse in Tsang founded by Ngorchen Künga Sangpo in 1429, which became the center of the widely spread Ngor branch of the Sakya tradition. Though following the Sakya tradition, Ngor Ewaṃ Chöden retained administrative independence from Sakya monastery.

A volume or chapter that is defined as three hundred stanzas according to The Two-Volume Lexicon .

This refers to the five disciples present at the Buddha’s first teaching: Kauṇḍinya, Bhadrika, Vāṣpa, Mahānāman, and Aśvajit.

The Fortunate Eon is our current eon. It is termed such because it formed out of an ocean that had a thousand-petaled lotus flower, signaling that one thousand buddhas would appear in succession during this time.

The four great rivers of Kham are the Drichu (’bri chu), Machu (rma chu), Ngulchu (rgyal mo dngul chu), and Dzachu (rdza chu).

Four of the most important Vinaya texts, namely Toh 1, 3, 6, and 7a.

An epithet for the Buddha Śākyamuni that indicates the sequence of his appearance after the three buddhas of this eon who preceded him.

The people of the Mutsa Ga clan are said to have originated from Azha (’a zha), also known as Tuyuhun. According to The Treasure of the Ancestral Clans of Tibet, they are known for being studious and hence erudite in matters of learning. Their element is wood, and their spirit animal (bla zog) is the goat.

Roof ornaments.

The Gar is a Tibetan clan of ancient provenance, the origin of which traces back to the ministers of Newo Trana, one of the twelve kingdoms of preimperial Tibet. According to the Catalog, it's one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

According to the Catalog, an ancestral figure of the Degé royal family who went to central Tibet and studied tantra with Jikten Gönpo at Drigung. He later moved to Powo where he established Phulung Rinchen Ling monastery. Other sources indicate he spent time at the court of the Tangut empire (Tib. mi nyag, Ch. xi xia)

One of Gar Dampa Chodingpa’s three brothers.

The son of Karchen Jangchup Bum and father of Gönpo Sung.

This likely refers to Darchar Rinchen Sangpo (’dar ’phyar rin chen bzang po, twelfth/thirteenth century), but this could not be confirmed.

No information could be located about this individual.

The people of the Go Lharik clan are said to be the native inhabitants of Dokham (mdo khams ) or eastern Tibet. They are said to be a “divine” lineage in that they descended from the skies on a miraculous rope. Their element is fire, and their spirit animal (bla zog) is the goat.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Gö Lotsāwa Shönu Pal (1392–1481) is one of the most famous literary figures in Tibetan history, renowned as a scholar, historian, and translator.

The son of Gendün Gyaltsen.

The third of the five major fields of learning.

Myangben Tingdzin Sangpo (myang ban ting ’dzin bzang po, eighth–ninth century) served as a guardian of the young emperor Senalek and also as a minister of state in the emperor’s court. He was very influential in the courts of both Senalek and Ralpachen.

Also known as Drenka Palkyi Yönten (bran ka dpal gyi yon tan, ninth century), he was the first to hold the position of grand monk (ban de chen po), a title given to the highest-ranking monks in the imperial court.

An epithet for Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion and patron deity of Tibet.

The Guhyasamāja (Toh 442) is one of the most important of the unexcelled yoga tantras.

The second Degé king, Gyaltsen Bum (fifteenth century) was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-second generation. He had four sons, of whom Pönchen A Nga became the third Degé king and the other three became monks. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

A fourteenth-century scholar who was involved in the production of the first Kangyur and Tengyur at Narthang monastery.

The name of a large town in central Tibet, which at one point was the capital of a small fiefdom.

A Kangyur produced in 1431 in Gyantsé, which provided the basis for a major branch of subsequent Kangyur recensions.

A location in central Tibet.

A traditional unit of length, measured from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the little finger.

The three cycles of twenty years that occur within the larger sixty-year cycles.

Jakra is a location near present day Degé, Kham, associated with Jakra monastery, which was converted from the Drigung school to the Sakya school in the thirteenth century. Formerly a residence of the kings of Ling, it became the summer palace of the Degé royalty some generations prior to the time of Tenpa Tsering.

Also known as Chim Jampaiyang (mchims ’jam pa’i dbyangs). A student of Chomden Rikpai Raldri who served as preceptor at the court of the Yuan emperor Buyantu Khan (known in Chinese as Renzong, r. 1311–20). He provided material assistance for the compilation of the Old Narthang manuscript Kangyur.

Jampa Phuntsok (late sixteenth century) was one of the sons of the sixth Degé king. He greatly expanded the Degé kingdom’s territory by incorporating neighboring regions and is credited with founding Lhundrup Teng.

A monk who compiled the catalog that would come to be known as the Narthang Kangyur

The secretary to the Degé king, Tenpa Tsering.

A historical kingdom in the southeast of Tibet, in the present-day Chinese province of Yunnan. Also known as Jang Satham (’jang sa tham), Naxi, or Lijiang.

The twenty-eighth in the sixty-year cycle of Vedic astrology. The name literally translates as “victory.”

Eighth- to ninth-century Tibetan translator.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen (1147–1216) was the third of the Sakya patriarchs.

Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (1143–1217) was the founder of the Drigung Kagyü lineage. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

A manuscript translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines that appears to have been named after Senalek Jingyön, the fortieth king of Tibet.

A translator during the imperial period.

Eighth- to ninth-century Tibetan monk, preceptor, and translator commonly known by his Tibetan name, Yeshé Dé (ye shes sde).

Son of the third Degé king, A Nga, and elder brother to the fourth Degé king, Yagyal Pal.

One of the most important tantric cycles practiced in Tibet, it contains a unique and influential description of the cosmology of the universe.

The son of Pema Tensung and father of Ngu Chödorwa.

Karma Kaṃtsang is another way to refer to the Karma Kagyü lineage that began with the first Karmapa, Düsum Khyenpa (1110–93).

A king of Jangyul (d. 1647).

Karma Pakṣi (1204–83) was second in the line of Karmapa incarnations. His recognition as the reincarnation of the first Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (1110–93), is regarded as the beginning of the tulku tradition in Tibet.

Born in the seventeenth century, he was a lineage holder of literary and grammatical teachings.

As the seventh Karmapa, Chödrak Gyatso (1454–1506) was the head of the Karma Kagyü school. He was an accomplished practitioner and a prolific scholar who spent much of his life in retreat. He was nevertheless very socially engaged and worked to put an end to military conflicts, finance bridge construction, instruct people to give up hunting and fishing, and restore Buddhist iconography, specifically the central Buddha statues at Bodhgaya and Tshurpu.

Katok monastery was founded by Katok Dampa Deshek in Horpo, Kham, in 1159. It is the oldest of the six mother Nyingma monasteries and is one of the twenty-four sacred sites of Kham.

Kathokpa Dampa Deshek (1122–92) was the founder of Kathok monastery. His elder brother was Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyalpo. He is one of the “three men from Kham” ( khams pa mi gsum), three famous students of Gampopa from eastern Tibet.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, it's one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Located in eastern Tibet, Kham is today considered one of the three main provinces (chol kha gsum) of Tibet. Referred to in some earlier sources as “Lower Dokham” (mdo khams smad).

See “Chim Chenpo Namkha Drak.”

A Tibetan translator during the imperial period.

There is little biographical information about Khyungpo Yudri but he seems to have been a scholar and scribe from the imperial period (eighth–ninth century) who was responsible for developing many of the common Tibetan scripts. He is said to have continued the calligraphic tradition of the famous translator Kawa Paltsek.

A tree that is said to have been grown in the heavens, possibly Bauhinia variegata.

Kublai Khan (1215–94) reigned over the Mongol empire from 1260 to 1294 and founded the Yuan dynasty in China. Based on his priest-patron (mchod yon) relationship, he entrusted both political and religious authority over Tibet to the head of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism, Drogön Chögyal Phakpa.

Künga Gyatso was one of the sons of the sixth Degé king, Pönchen Könchok Lhunthup. He ordained and became a renowned practitioner.

The fifth Degé king, Künga Rinchen (b. late sixteenth century; d. early seventeenth century) was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-fifth generation. He was the first of the Degé kings to have monastic vows. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

Ngorchen Künga Sangpo (1382–1456) is a central figure in the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism. He founded Ngor Ewaṃ Chöden monastery, and the Sakya Ngor tradition with which Lhundrup Teng was affiliated.

Also known as Lake Mānasarovar, Lake Mapham is a high-altitude freshwater lake in the vicinity of Mount Tisé sacred to Bönpos, Buddhists, Jains, and Hindus.

One of the four famous lakes of Tibet. Located in Damshung (’dam gzhung) county, not far from Lhasa.

Also known as Yardrok Yumtso (yar ’brog g.yu mtsho), Lake Nuptso is located in present-day Nakartse (sna dkar rtse) county in Tibet. Its name derives from the Nub (snubs) clan that inhabited the surrounding regions.

Also known as Lake Kokonor or Qinghai Lake, meaning Blue Lake. Located in present-day Qinghai province, west of Xining. There appears to be a wide variety of alternative spellings for the lake’s name, which suggests its origin in pre-written oral culture. According to the Dungkar Dictionary, the name Tri Shö derives from an oral legend that the families living in that area numbered in the tens of thousands (khri) and as the lake appeared out of the earth they fell (shor) inside.

No definitive information on Drupang Tsawa could be located.

A son of Lhunthup.

A Buddhist master.

A son of Lhunthup who became a monk.

One of two sons of the first Degé king, Bothar Lodrö Topden. Lama Palden Sengé (d.u.) became a monk and studied at Ngor Ewaṃ Chöden in Tsang before later founding Nyingön monastery back in Kham.

A descendent of Dorjé Lhundrup.

A common way of referring to greater Tibet.

An unidentified area settled by Garchen Yeshé Sangpo, an early forebear of the royal house of Degé.

The period from the tenth century onward when the Buddhist teachings again began to be translated into Tibetan and spread throughout Tibet after a period of decline.

A monastery associated with the early production of vinaya texts.

The place in eastern Tibet where the Lhodzong Kangyur was housed.

Lhundrup Teng is a monastery in Degé, also known as Degé Gonchen. It houses the renowned Degé printing house established by Tenpa Tsering. Originally a royal palace and temple, from the seventeenth century Lhundrup Teng became closely associated with the Ngor branch of the Sakya tradition. Until the mid-nineteenth century the kings of Degé were also often, as in the case of Tenpa Tsering, the throne holders (khri chen) or abbots of Lhundrup Teng.

The sixth Degé king, Pönchen Könchok Lhuntub (late sixteenth to mid-seventeenth century) was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-sixth generation.

Ling is both a clan (sometimes called Lingtsang) and a kingdom north of Degé, which was independent until 1950.

A large and historically important Gelukpa monastery in eastern Tibet founded in 1580 by the Third Dalai Lama. Also known as Litang Chökhor Ling (li thang chos ’khor gling).

Ngok Lotsāwa Loden Sherab (rngog lo tsA ba blo ldan shes rab, 1059–1109) was an important translator of Indic Buddhist texts into Tibetan.

An epithet used in the Catalog to refer to Tenpa Tsering, the tenth Degé king and sponsor of the Degé Kangyur.

An epithet for the Buddha.

A fourteenth-century translator and scholar who was involved in the production of the first Kangyur and Tengyur at Narthang monastery.

A glossary of Tibetan-Sanskrit terms produced under Tibetan imperial patronage in the early ninth century. Both it and its commentary, known as the Drajor Bampo Nyipa or the Two-Volume Lexicon (Toh 4347), are incuded in the Tengyur.

This seems to be referring to Tashi Lhundrup (bkra shis lhun grub, 1672–1739), the thirty-first abbot of Ngor monastery, whose name, Tashi, corresponds to the Sanskrit maṅgala, or “good fortune.”

An alternate name for Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva of wisdom.

Eighth- to ninth-century Tibetan translator also known by his Tibetan name, Gajam Gocha (dba ’jam dpal go cha).

The demon who assailed Śākyamuni prior to his awakening; any demonic force; the personification of conceptual and emotional obstacles.

The eighth Karmapa (1507–54), he was renowned for his scholarship and artistic ability.

The third Ming Emperor, Yongle (1360–1424) ruled China from 1402 until his death. He was a patron of Tibetan Buddhism and sponsored the first block-print edition of the Kangyur, known as the Yongle edition, printed in Beijing in 1410.

An honorific title used for monks. The Śākyas were the clan of the Buddha Śākyamuni, which means “Sage of the Śākyas.”

Also known as Nöjin Gangsang (gnod sbying gangs bzang), Mount Hawo is located in present-day Nakartse (sna dkar rtse) county in Tibet. According to the Nyang History (myang chos ’byung) attributed to Tāranātha (1575–1634), the area around this mountain is associated with Padmasaṃbhava, who practiced and hid treasures there.

Also known as Mount Kailāśa, Mount Tisé is one of Tibet’s three famous mountains. Located in present-day Purang county in Ngari prefecture. The name Tisé is a Shangshung (zhang zhung) word for “water deity,” since the mountain is said to be the source of four rivers.

Second- or third-century Indian master whose writings formed the basis for the Madhyamaka tradition.

A monastery in Tsang known for producing the first edition of the Kangyur.

An edict of King Senalek Jingyön aimed at creating standards for spelling and terminology in the Tibetan language.

Western Tibet.

The Great Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82) was the first Dalai Lama to serve as the temporal and religious leader of Tibet.

The son of Karchen Jangchup Bum and an accomplished master from the Ngu clan. The full form of his name was Ngupa Chöki Dorje. He features in The Royal Genealogy of Degé as belonging to the thirtieth generation of the royal line.

Nephew of Sönam Rinchen and father of Tongpön Dawa Sangpo.

The son of Tongpön Dawa Sangpo and father of Pema Tensung.

An area close to Degé.

A monastery in Ngülda, close to Degé.

The Ocean of Milk is the fifth of seven oceans in Hindu cosmology. According to that tradition, the divine wish-fulfilling tree emerged when the Ocean of Milk was churned by the gods in their quest for the elixir of immortality.

A place in Tibet.

A location in central Tibet that is also where the Tashi Pemé Gephel temple is located.

Nephew of Gar Dampa Chödingpa, Orgyen or Orgyenpa was one of the main heads of his uncle’s monasteries Phulung Rinchen Ling and Choding, under whom they greatly flourished.

The eighth Degé king, Orgyen Tashi (mid- to late seventeenth century) was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-eighth generation.

Sometimes appearing as Paiśācī, this is considered one of the great canonical languages of Indian Buddhist texts although there are no extant examples of this language. The name literally means “language of the ghosts.” Its history is unclear, but it is often identified as an ancestor of the Indo-Aryan Dardic languages spoken in the Kashmir region.

A Tibetan translator during the imperial period.

Palpung monastery is an important Karma Kagyü monastery in Degé founded by Situ Paṇchen, the eighth Tai Situ Chökyi Jungné, in 1727 on the site of a previous Drigung Kagyü monastery. The construction of its main temple and assembly hall was supported by the Degé king, Tenpa Tsering.

Paltsek (eighth to early ninth century), from the village of Kawa north of Lhasa, was one of Tibet’s preeminent translators. He was one of the first seven Tibetans to be ordained by Śāntarakṣita and is counted as one of Guru Rinpoché’s twenty-five close disciples. In a famous verse by Ngok Lotsawa Loden Sherab, Kawa Paltsek is named along with Chokro Lui Gyaltsen and Zhang (or Nanam) Yeshé Dé as part of a group of translators whose skills were surpassed only by Vairotsana.He translated works from a wide variety of genres, including sūtra, śāstra, vinaya, and tantra, and was an author himself. Paltsek was also one of the most important editors of the early period, one of nine translators installed by Tri Songdetsen (r. 755–797/800) to supervise the translation of the Tripiṭaka and help catalog translated works for the first two of three imperial catalogs, the Denkarma (ldan kar ma) and the Samyé Chimpuma (bsam yas mchims phu ma). In the colophons of his works, he is often known as Paltsek Rakṣita (rak+Shi ta).

Pāṇḍu is a character in the Sanskrit epic, the Mahābhārata. He was the father of the five Pandava brothers, one of whom was Arjuna.

The Path and Result is the highest teaching of the Sakya lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. It is rooted in the understanding that the path to awakening and the result of awakening itself are contained within one another. The teachings of the Path and Result are based on Virūpa’s Vajra Verses (rdo rje’i tshig rkang), whereas the practice is based on the Hevajra Tantra.

In metrics, pathyā refers to the “normal,” as opposed to the “extended” (vipula), variety of anuṣṭubh.

The son of Ngu Gyalwa Sangpo and father of Karchen Jangchup Bum.

A royal fortress located in Yerpa, east of Lhasa, which was built in the eighth century ᴄᴇ. The scriptures housed here were cataloged during the reign of the Tibetan emperor Senalek. This catalog survives today, known as the Phangthangma catalog.

The title of a hereditary lineage in Powo established at Phulung Rinchen Ling monastery by Gar Dampa Chödingpa.

Founded in 1260 by Gar Dampa Chodingpa in the Phu area of Powo, Phulung Rinchen Ling is considered to be a sister monastery of Tshurpu.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Pomdrakpa Sönam Dorjé (1170–1249) is credited with recognizing Karma Pakṣi as the reincarnation of Dusum Khyenpa (1110–93), thus beginning the lineage of the Karmapas. His monastic seat was Trashö Pomdrak (khra shod spom brag), from where he received his shorthand title of Pomdrak.

The name of a religious community in Tibet.

The seventh Degé king, Pönchen Luphel (early seventeenth to mid-seventeenth century), was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-seventh generation.

One of the three sons of the fourth Degé king.

Künga Phuntsok (seventeenth century) was the son of Pön Lupel, a renowned scholar, and abbot of Lhundrup Teng.

Potalaka is the pure land of Avalokiteśvara.

A powerful monarch one level below a universal monarch and one above an ordinary ruler.

Along with Kongpo and Dakpo, Powo is one of the three main regions of southeastern Tibet.

A fixed arrangement of short and long syllables. See Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Tayé and Gyurme Dorje, pp. 367–78.

A manuscript translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines that appears to have been named after Langdarma’s son, Namdé Ösung (gnam lde ’od srung).

In the Catalog, presented as the fifth of five ancient ancestral clans of Tibet, from which the royal house of Degé descends.

The twentieth of the twenty-seven constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology. Here it corresponds to the sixth month of the Tibetan calendar, when the moon is full in the constellation.

The eighth of the twenty-seven constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology. Vedic astrology divides the day into thirty periods of forty-eight minutes called muhūrtas; Puṣya is the period that corresponds to 8:24 to 9:12 p.m.

The forty-first emperor of Tibet and third of the three Dharma Kings, he reigned ca. 815–36. Also known as Tritsuk Detsen (khri gtsug lde btsan).

A manuscript translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines that appears to have been named after Ralpachen, the forty-first king of Tibet.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Eighth- to ninth-century Tibetan monk, preceptor, and translator (not to be confused with the thirteenth-century mahāpaṇḍita of the same name).

Eighth- to ninth-century Tibetan translator.

The fifty-fourth in the sixty-year cycle of Vedic astrology. The name literally translates as “fierce” or “wrathful.”

See also “Chom Ralpa.”

Rikzin Gödemchen Ngödrub Gyaltsen (1337–1409) was the first in the incarnation line of Dorjé Drak Rikzin. His name comes from the fact that three feather-like growths sprouted from his head, so he was given the name “the one with (chen) the feathers (dem) of a vulture (rgod).”

There is very little biographical information on Rongpo, but he appears to have come a generation after Khyungpo Yudri. He is responsible for having made amendments to the scripts of Khyungpo Yudri’s tradition and is the author of an important handwriting manual, yig ge’i thig ris gsal ba’i rin chen sgrom bu.

A monastery associated with the early production of vinaya texts.

A minor king attributed by Tibetan sources to the Sanskrit epic, the Mahābhārata. He is said to have fled battle and settled in the Tibetan plateau.

The forty-fourth in the sixty-year calendar of Vedic astrology, literally meaning “common” or “shared.”

An epithet for the Buddha.

Sahajā is a goddess who presides over the Tibetan lands as described in the eighteenth chapter of the Vajraḍāka Tantra.

One of the four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism, taking its name from Sakya monastery in southern central Tibet.

Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyaltsen (1182–1251) was one of the five Sakya patriarchs and a highly influential scholar whose ideal of scholasticism became deeply embedded in Buddhist learning in Tibet.

Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092–1158), the founder of Sakya as a distinctive school of Tibetan Buddhism. His father founded the first physical center at Sakya, but it was Sachen who was innovative in terms of its practices and doctrines.

A Kashmiri master, Śākyaśrībhadra (1127–1225) was the last abbot of the great Nālandā monastery in India. Later in his life he traveled to Tibet and taught a number of Tibetan students, including Sakya Paṇḍita. He is credited with authoring twenty-three texts that are included in the Tengyur.

See “Jampa Phuntsok.”

Saltong Shogom (twelfth century) was a student of Gampopa who founded a minor sect that has since disappeared. He is one of the “three men from Kham” ( khams pa mi gsum), three famous students of Gampopa from eastern Tibet.

A monastery in the area of Samar. During the Yuan dynasty, a chiliarch (stong dpon) position was associated with this monastery.

Tibet’s first monastery and a center of Buddhist activity throughout the imperial period.

Sangyé Tenpa (ca. 1638–1710) was the son of the seventh Degé king and the third abbot of Lhundrup Teng. He was known for his religious ecumenicalism.

The twenty-first in the sixty-year calendar of Vedic astrology, literally meaning “all-conquering.”

See “Jang.”

See “Secret Mantra Vajrayāna.”

A general term used to refer to the practices and methods of Tantric Buddhism.

This refers to encoded or hidden language.

The fortieth emperor of Tibet. Reigned ca. 800–15 ᴄᴇ. Also known as Tri Désongtsen (khri lde srong btsan), he was youngest son of King Tri Songdetsen (khri srong lde btsan, 742–97).

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

A monk and scholar of the twelfth–thirteenth century. Founder of Serding monastery and prominent in the Guhyasamāja Tantra lineage.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

The fourth Shamarpa (1453–1524), an important reincarnation lineage in the Kagyü sect. Also known as Chödrak Yeshé (chos grags ye shes), he was an important religious and political figure in central Tibet at the turn of the sixteenth century.

Tibetan translator from the eighth century.

A Buddhist master.

A river name in Kham, mentioned in the Catalog in reference to the “land of Ling.” While the Dachu (zla chu) is a name used for the upper Mekong river that flows to the west of Degé, the Shardachu (“eastern Dachu”) here likely refers to the eastern Dzachu, which is one of the four great rivers of eastern Tibet known in Chinese as the Yalong (Ch. Yalongjiang), a major tributary of the Yangtze.

Living during the twelfth century, he was a holder of the upper Vinaya lineage (stod ’dul).

The name of a monastery mentioned in this text. No other information could be found.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

Also known as Rongtönpa (1367–1449), he was one of the most prominent scholars in the Sakya tradition.

A Kashmiri paṇḍita who was invited to Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of a number of sūtras.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

The six mountain ranges of eastern Tibet are listed as the Zalmo range (zal mo sgang), Tsawa range (tsha ba sgang), Markham range (smar khams sgang), Minyak-Rab range (mi nyag rab sgang), Pobor range (spo ’bor sgang), and Mardza range (dmar rdza sgang).

The sixth Shamar Rinpoché, Shamar Chökyi Wangchuk (shwa dmar chos kyi dbang phyug, 1584–1630), at the request of the king of Jang Satham in eastern Tibet, led the compilation of what became known as the Lithang Kangyur.

The name of a particular nāga, a class of serpent creatures.

Sönam Phuntsok (d. 1714) served as the fourth abbot of Lhundrup Teng and, in effect, as the ninth Degé king since the true political power lay at that time more with the clergy than the hierarchy.

Also known as Sönam Chöphel (bsod nams chos ’phel, 1595–1658), he was an important political figure in the time of the Fourth and Fifth Dalai Lamas, acting as the de facto ruler of Tibet between 1641 and 1658.

One of the two sons of Garchen Yeshé Sangpo, said to have served as chamberlain to Drogön Chögyal Phakpa.

Songtsen Gampo (ca. 557/569–649) was the thirty-third emperor of the great Tibetan empire and is remembered for introducing Buddhism to Tibet and supporting the creation of the Tibetan script.

The twenty-second of the twenty-seven constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

A Kashmiri paṇḍita who was invited to Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He worked with several Tibetan translators on the translation of a number of sūtras.

A tantric text accepted by both Buddhists and Hindus that relates the breath to the cosmology of the universe.

A clan or tribe in Tibet. According to the Catalog, one of the eighteen tribes of Nguchen Gyalmo, belonging to the divine lineage of Go.

A castle that was located in the Chingwa district of central Tibet, which was home to the kings of Tibet before they moved to Lhasa in the seventh century. It is also the birthplace of the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82).

A monk-scholar based in Degé who worked on the editing of some of the principal long texts during the preparation of the Degé Kangyur‍—no doubt as well as other projects that are not so well documented. He was appointed by Tashi Tsering to edit the Tibetan translation of the Buddhāvataṃsaka, and is the author of an extensive editorial note, written in the Water Tiger year, 1722 (and therefore well before the first printing of the Degé Kangyur), and appended to the end of the Buddhāvataṃsaka after the colophon. It contains details such as transmission records and the problems encountered in collating variants in the older manuscripts and versions. An annotated translation can be found at the end of the final chapter, The Stem Array (Gaṇḍavyūha, chapter 45 of Toh 44), c.2–15. See also 84000’s Knowledge Base article on the Buddhāvataṃsaka, A Multitude of Buddhas . He also wrote a colophon and editorial note together with some dedicatory verses appended to the end of The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines (Pañca­viṃśati­sāhasrikā­prajñā­pāramitā, Toh 9) praising Tenpa Tsering’s supervision of the publication of the Perfection of Wisdom sūtras. This colophon, too, appears to have been written in 1722, and Tashi Wangchuk states that this was the occasion when the carving of the xylographs of The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines and of the Buddhāvataṃsaka had just been completed by two hundred and fifty wood-carvers. A translation can be seen at the end of The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines, c.1–16.

Tengyur literally means “translated treatises,” and refers to the canonical collection of treatises by mostly Indian masters in Tibetan translation. Along with the Kangyur, it forms a central part of the Tibetan Buddhist canon.

Tenpa Tsering (1678–1738) was both the king of Degé and the hereditary throne holder at Lhundrup Teng Monastery. He initiated and sponsored the production of the Degé Kangyur and the founding of the Degé printing house. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

A famous mountain range near the region of Nakchu in the northern part of the Tibetan plateau.

Also known as Solnak Thangpoché (sol nag thang po che), a monastery in central Tibet that was founded in 1017.

Thangtong Gyalpo (1361–1485) was a highly realized master and renaissance man. He is remembered not only for spiritual prowess as a “madman” yogi, but also as an architect who built many bridges, a blacksmith who developed new technologies for smelting iron, an artist and writer who initiated the tradition of opera in Tibet, a dispeller of epidemics, and more.

A monastery southwest of Lhasa founded in 1350.

One of two foundational texts of Tibetan grammar, which are the only two remaining of Thönmi Sambhoṭa’s original eight, The Application of Gender Signs deals with how Tibetan words are formed based on their gender signs. The other is The Thirty Verses .

A sūtra collection housed in Chumik Ringmo monastery.

Two early manuscript translations of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines that were said to have been written in blue and red ink respectively; the red ink (the earliest) is said to have been made using the king’s blood, and the blue using his singed hair.

A sūtra collection housed in Chumik Ringmo monastery.

A sūtra collection housed in Shalu monastery.

A text from the Vinaya section of the Kangyur (Toh 6).

A catalog of tantric texts written by Chomden Rikpai Raldri.

Traditionally, the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra as we have it today is regarded as the “follow-up tantra” (uttaratantra) to a much larger original Cakrasaṃvara Tantra. The Follow-Up Tantra to the Cakrasaṃvara thus refers to the extant tantra itself.

A sūtra collection housed in Narthang monastery.

The longest of the early manuscript translations of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines , created for King Tri Desongtsen.

A sūtra collection housed in Shalu monastery.

A sūtra collection housed in Narthang monastery.

The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Śata­sāhasrikā­prajñā­pāramitā, Toh 8) comprises twelve volumes, three hundred and one fascicles, and seventy-two chapters.

The Lalitavistara­sūtra found in the Kangyur (Toh 95).

The Devātiśayastotra (Toh 1112) by Śaṃkarasvāmin (ca. sixth century) is a eulogy to the Buddha that describes him as superior to all other gods of the Hindu pantheon in an almost polemical manner. Translated into Tibetan around the end of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century. The commentary to this work was composed by Prajñāvarman.

“The Precious Oral Instructions of the Path and Result” is a more elaborate way of referring to the Path and Result.

A text from the Vinaya section of the Kangyur (Toh 7).

A sūtra collection housed in Narthang monastery.

The Nītiśāstra­prajñā­daṇḍa (Toh 4329) by Nāgārjuna (ca. 150–250 ᴄᴇ).

The Supreme Ornament of Gods and Men appears to have been an early collection of sūtras that was important to the thirteenth-century Sakya Patriarch Chögyal Phakpa, but no record of this collection apart from descriptions of the history of the Kangyur could be found.

A sūtra collection housed in Shokchung temple.

A sūtra collection produced by Geshé Darchar and housed at Chumik Ringmo monastery.

A sūtra collection that was the personal practice support for Lama Drupang Tsawa.

Toh 373.

One of two foundational texts of Tibetan grammar, which are the only two remaining of Thönmi Sambhoṭa’s original eight, The Thirty Verses deals with the system of how letters, vowels, and consonants combine and the ways that words are put together. The other is The Application of Gender Signs .

The Nītiśāstra (Toh 4335) by Masūrākṣa (d.u.).

Refers to the conjoining of religious and secular authority, as exemplified here by the religious kings of Degé.

The Tibetan imperial era lexicon known as the Mahāvyutpatti (Toh 4346) was accompanied by a commentary often referred to by scholars with its Tibetan name as the Drajor Bampo Nyipa or the Two-Volume Lexicon (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa, Toh 4347).

This is an introduction to Sanskrit grammar written in Tibetan by Smṛtijñānakīrti (eleventh century). The full Tibetan title is smra ba’i sgo mtshon cha la bu rtsa ’grel.

An important astrological text by Phukpa Lhundrup Gyatso (phug pa lhun grub rgya mtsho, fifteenth century) from which originated the calendar that is most commonly used in Tibet to this day.

The Bodhisattvāvadāna­kalpalatā (Toh 4155) by Kṣemendra (ca. 990–ca. 1070).

A Tibetan scholar (seventh century ᴄᴇ) who is said to have been sent by the Tibetan emperor Songtsen Gampo to India in order to develop a writing system for the Tibetan language.

Reasoning based on direct perception, inference, and authoritative testimony.

Lit. “ruler of one thousand,” a Tibetan administrative rank dating back to Tibetan imperial times, also used during the Mongol Yuan period.

The son of Ngu Guru and father of Ngu Gyalwa Sangpo.

A palace located in Lhoka, southern Tibet.

See “Senalek Jingyön.”

The thirty-seventh king of Tibet, Tri Detsuktsen (khri lde gtsug brtsan, 705–55).

A manuscript translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines created for King Tri Detsuk.

Thirty-eighth emperor of Tibet and second of the three Dharma Kings. Reigned ca. 755–798/804.

Tibetan minister in the eighth century from the Ba clan.

A monastery in central Tibet where the Tshalpa Kangyur was created.

The western part of central Tibet, with its modern capital at Shigatse.

A manuscript translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines that appears to have been named after Prince Tsangma, the eldest son of King Senalek, who took monastic ordination. The Tibetan bye in this name, tentatively rendered “demarcated,” could also be understood to mean “sand” or “million.”

One of Tibet’s three famous mountains. Located in present-day Lhokha prefecture.

A member of King Tenpa Tsering’s court.

An edition of the Kangyur produced at Gungthang monastery in central Tibet from 1347–51, under the sponsorship of the local ruler, Tshalpa Künga Dorjé (1309–64). It provided the basis for a branch of subsequent Kangyur editions.

Also known as Tshalpa Situ Künga Dorjé (tshal pa si tu kun dga’ rdo rje, 1309–64).

A common list of sites important for Tantric Buddhism that are typically mentioned only by name. For a more detailed description see the Cakrasaṃvara History (bde mchog chos ’byung) of Butön Rinchen Drup (1290–1364).

The central province of Tibet surrounding Lhasa.

Üpa Losal (thirteenth to fourteenth century) was a student of both Chomralpa and Jamgak Pakṣi, and he was an important scholar in the production of the first Kangyur and Tengyur at Narthang monastery.

Central Tibet.

The twelfth of the twenty-seven constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology. Here it corresponds to the second month of the Tibetan calendar.

A respectful title for an accomplished master in Buddhist, particularly tantric, learning and practice.

Vajrabhairava is a wrathful form of Mañjuśrī. Practiced by Sarma traditions, he is classified under highest yoga tantra.

In tantra traditions, the name of the primordial buddha. Used here as a highly reverential way of referring to a Buddhist master, which alludes to the fact that they are awakened buddhas.

Also known as Ngorchen Künga Sangpo (ngor chen kun dga’ bzang po, 1382–1456), he was an important Sakya master and founder of the Ngor tradition. He also commissioned the production of a Kangyur catalog in Mustang written in gold lettering.

A fourth-century Indian monk who is regarded as one of the greatest scholars in Buddhist history. He authored the Abhidharmakośa, the most definitive work on the Abhidharma, and numerous important works on the Vijñānavāda philosophy.

An epithet for Kṛṣṇa, who is an avatar of Viṣṇu.

Goddess of riches, Earth personified; she is invoked for the fulfillment of wishes.

The second in the sixty-year calendar of Vedic astrology, literally meaning “wealth.”

Of the three piṭakas, or “baskets,” of the Buddhist canon, the one dealing specifically with the code of monastic discipline.

Full name Wangchuk Tsultrim (dbang phyug tshul khrims, 1047–1131), he was a holder of the lower Vinaya lineage (smad ’dul) and a member of the Gya clan.

The sixteenth of the twenty-seven major constellations, or nakṣatras, in Vedic astrology. Here it corresponds to the fourth month of the Tibetan calendar, when the moon is full in the constellation Saga (Tib.), or Viśakhā (Skt.).

A type of meter with a fixed sequence of short and long syllables that varies in each quarter. Many scholars regard anuṣṭubh as an example of such meter.

One of the central deities of Hinduism. In the Mahābhārata, Kṛṣṇa, who is considered a form of Viṣṇu, takes the role of Arjuna’s charioteer and delivers the sermon known as the Bhagavad Gītā.

Wangchen Gönpo was nominally the ninth Degé king although the actual political power was exercised by his elder brother, Sönam Phuntsok.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

A place in Tibet.

The fourth Degé king, Yagyal Phel (b. late fifteenth century; d. late sixteenth century) was the head of the house of Degé in its thirty-fourth generation. He had three sons, Künga Rinchen, who would become the fifth Degé king, Namkha, and Dorjé Lhundrup. For more on his life see his entry at The Treasury of Lives.

Full name Ba Yeshé Wangpo (dba’ ye shes dbang po), he was a Tibetan monk and translator active in the eighth century and a disciple of Śāntarakṣita.

The third emperor from the Manchu Qing dynasty to rule over China, Yongzheng was born in 1678 and ruled from 1722 until his death in 1735. King Tenpa Tsering submitted to him in 1728.

The Zalmogang is counted among the six mountain ranges of eastern Tibet. It covers areas such as Palyul, Degé, Denma, Nyarong, and Sershul.

A famous Sakya monastery near Shigatse that was founded in 1022.