A buddha realm located in the eastern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Also called Absence of Torment.

The absence of the conceptual identification of perceptions, knowing that the true nature has no attributes, such as color or shape. One of the three gateways of liberation.

A buddha realm located in the eastern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Also called Absence of Heat.

The absence of any conceptual goal that one is focused upon achieving, knowing that all composite phenomena create suffering. One of the three gateways of liberation.

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

A nāga king.

A medicine goddess.

The five extremely negative actions that, once those who have committed them die, result in immediate rebirth in the hells without the experience of the intermediate state. They are killing an arhat, killing one’s mother, killing one’s father, creating a schism in the Saṅgha, and maliciously drawing blood from a tathāgata’s body.

The five aggregates of form, sensation, perception, formation, and consciousness. On the individual level the five aggregates refer to the basis upon which the mistaken idea of a self is projected.

A nāga king.

Another name for Kauṇḍinya. As he was the first to understand the Buddha Śākyamuni’s teaching on the four truths of the noble ones, he received the name Ājñātakauṇḍinya (Kauṇḍinya Who Understood).

A bodhisattva residing in a buddha realm in the northern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A class of nonhuman beings believed to cause epilepsy, fits, and loss of memory. As their name suggests‍—the Skt. apasmāra literally means “without memory” and the Tib. brjed byed means “causing forgetfulness”‍—they are defined by the condition they cause in affected humans, and the term can refer to any nonhuman being that causes such conditions, whether a bhūta, a piśāca, or other.

A fundamental practice of Buddhist meditation: close application of mindfulness to the body, close application of mindfulness to feelings, close application of mindfulness to mind, and close application of mindfulness to phenomena.

A monk in the past, son of the king Free of Flowers during the time of the Buddha Śikhin.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

A monk in charge of providing for monastery residents and visitors. One of several official administrative or managerial positions at a monastery.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

Name of a buddha realm located in the southern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Name of a sage.

This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.

The king of Magadha and a great patron of the Buddha. His birth coincided with the Buddha’s, and his father, King Mahāpadma, named him “Essence of Gold” after mistakenly attributing the brilliant light that marked the Buddha’s birth to the birth of his son by Queen Bimbī (“Goldie”). Accounts of Bimbisāra’s youth and life can be found in The Chapter on Going Forth (Toh 1-1, Pravrajyāvastu).King Śreṇya Bimbisāra first met with the Buddha early on, when the latter was the wandering mendicant known as Gautama. Impressed by his conduct, Bimbisāra offered to take Gautama into his court, but Gautama refused, and Bimbisāra wished him success in his quest for awakening and asked him to visit his palace after he had achieved his goal. One account of this episode can be found in the sixteenth chapter of The Play in Full (Toh 95, Lalitavistara). There are other accounts where the two meet earlier on in childhood; several episodes can be found, for example, in The Hundred Deeds (Toh 340, Karmaśataka). Later, after the Buddha’s awakening, Bimbisāra became one of his most famous patrons and donated to the saṅgha the Bamboo Grove, Veṇuvana, at the outskirts of the capital of Magadha, Rājagṛha, where he built residences for the monks. Bimbisāra was imprisoned and killed by his own son, the prince Ajātaśatru, who, influenced by Devadatta, sought to usurp his father’s throne.

One of the eight hot hells.

A nāga.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A demon leader.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

The highest of the four classes in the Indian caste system, it is most closely associated with religious vocations.

A location in Khaṣa.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A nāga king.

Roughly a synonym for “universe,” although Buddhist cosmology contains many universes of different types and dimensions. “Buddha realm” indicates, in regard to any type of universe, that it is the field of influence of a particular buddha.

A buddha residing in the eastern direction at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

Name of a mercenary demon.

A being who attains victory (i.e., awakening) through specific circumstances. A synonym for a solitary buddha.

A past buddha.

A nāga king.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

The fifth of the six perfections. Generally one of the synonyms for meditation, referring to a state of mental stability. The specific four concentrations are four successively subtler states of meditation that are said to lead to rebirth into the corresponding four levels of the form realm.

A nāga king.

Butön includes the Kashmiri abbot Dharmākara in his list of ninety-three paṇḍitas invited to Tibet to assist in the translation of the Buddhist scriptures. Tāranātha dates Dharmākara to the rule of *Vanapāla, son of Dharmapāla. With Paltsek, he translated two of Kalyāṇamitra’s works on Vinaya, the Vinaya­praśnakārikā (’dul ba dri ba’i tshig le’ur byas pa, Toh 4134) and the Vinaya­praśnaṭīkā (’dul ba dri ba rgya cher ’grel pa, Toh 4135).

The buddha who preceded Śākyamuni and gave him the prophecy of his buddhahood.

A mountain in Godānīya.

A series of progressively more subtle states of meditative realization or attainment. There are several presentations of these found in the canonical literature. One of the most common is as follows: (1) One observes form while the mind dwells at the level of the form realm. (2) One observes form externally while discerning formlessness internally. (3) One dwells in the direct experience of the body’s pleasant aspect. (4) One dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite space by transcending all conceptions of matter, resistance, and diversity. (5) Transcending the sphere of infinite space, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite consciousness. (6) Transcending the sphere of infinite consciousness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of nothing whatsoever. (7) Transcending the sphere of nothing whatsoever, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception. (8) Transcending the sphere of neither perception and nonperception, one dwells in the realization of the cessation of conception and feeling.

Circumstances that do not provide the freedom to practice the Buddhist path: being in the realms of (1) the hells, (2) pretas, (3) animals, and (4) long-lived gods; or in the human realm among (5) barbarians or (6) extremists, (7) in places where the Buddhist teachings do not exist, and (8) without adequate faculties to understand the teachings where they do exist.

A traditional list that includes the great philosophical systems of India (Sāṅkhya, Yoga, etc.) as well as ordinary sciences and arts such as arithmetic, medicine, astrology, music, and archery.

Eighteen special features of a buddha’s behavior, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by other beings. They are generally listed as: (1) he never makes a mistake, (2) he is never boisterous, (3) he never forgets, (4) his concentration never falters, (5) he has no notion of distinctness, (6) his equanimity is not due to lack of consideration, (7) his motivation never falters, (8) his endeavor never fails, (9) his mindfulness never falters, (10) he never abandons his concentration, (11) his insight (prajñā) never decreases, (12) his liberation never fails, (13) all his physical actions are preceded and followed by wisdom (jñāna), (14) all his verbal actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (15) all his mental actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (16) his wisdom and vision perceive the past without attachment or hindrance, (17) his wisdom and vision perceive the future without attachment or hindrance, and (18) his wisdom and vision perceive the present without attachment or hindrance.

Right view, intention, speech, actions, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.

A nāga king often present in the retinue of the Buddha Śākyamuni. According to the Vinaya, in the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa he had been a monk (bhikṣu) who angrily cut down a thorny bush at the entrance of his cave because it always snagged his robes. Cutting down bushes or even grass is contrary to the monastic rules and he did not confess his action. Therefore, he was reborn as a nāga with a tree growing out of his head, which caused him great pain whenever the wind blew. This tale is found represented in ancient sculpture and is often quoted to demonstrate how small misdeeds can lead to great consequences. See, e.g., Patrul Rinpoche, The Words of My Perfect Teacher.

A nāga king. The Tibetan e la’i gdong seems to reflect elamukha rather than the attested elavarṇa.

One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements (eye and form, ear and sound, nose and smell, tongue and taste, body and physical objects, and mind and mental phenomena, to which the six consciousnesses are added). Also refers here to the “four great elements.”

A nāga king.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

A nāga king. (Note that this translation is partly tentative, as the Tibetan ba lang, which ordinarily means “cow,” “bull,” or “elephant,” has not been rendered into English, as its meaning here is unclear.)

A nāga king.

A state of mental equipoise derived from deep concentration.

Name of a buddha realm located in the western direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

Name of a king, a previous incarnation of the Buddha.

A yakṣa leader.

A nāga.

A rākṣasī.

A land in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent.

It is unclear who this might be.

Five aspects of life that indicate the degenerate nature of a given age. They are the impurities of views, of afflictions, of sentient beings, of lifespan, and of time.

Divine sight, divine hearing, the ability to know past and future lives, the ability to know the minds of others, and the ability to produce miracles.

One of the five aggregates, they are formative forces concomitant with the production of karmic seeds causing future saṃsāric existence.

These comprise (1) the attainment of the sphere of infinite space, (2) the attainment of the sphere of infinite consciousness, (3) the attainment of the sphere of nothing whatsoever, and (4) the attainment of the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception.

The assemblies of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.

Four types of absorption related to intention, diligence, attention, and analysis as they manifest on the greater path of accumulation.

The four levels of concentration related to the form realm.

Genuine discrimination with respect to phenomena, meaning, language, and eloquence.

Earth, water, fire, and wind.

Four deities on the base of Mount Sumeru, each the guardian of his direction: Vaiśravaṇa in the north, Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east, Virūpākṣa in the west, and Virūḍhaka in the south.

The fourfold division of an army into infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots.

Four symbols or personifications of the defects that prevent awakening. These four are devaputramāra (lha’i bu’i bdud), the divine māra, which is the distraction of pleasures; mṛtyumāra (’chi bdag gi bdud), the māra of death; skandhamāra (phung po’i bdud), the māra of the aggregates, which is the body; and kleśamāra (nyon mongs pa’i bdud), the māra of the afflictions.

These are traditionally listed as four: generosity, kind talk, meaningful actions, and practicing what one preaches.

The Buddha’s first teaching, which explains suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

Name of a daughter of Māra.

A past king during the time of the Buddha Śikhin.

A nāga king.

A bodhisattva residing in a buddha realm in the southern direction at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An ancient kingdom once located in northwestern India in what is now Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. It lasted from around the sixth century ʙᴄᴇ to the eleventh century ᴄᴇ and attained its height in the first to fifth centuries under the Buddhist Kushan kings.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The family name of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it is often used by those who are not his followers.

The brother of Nadīkāśyapa and Uruvilvākāśyapa. A practitioner of fire offering at Uruvilvā (Bodhgaya), he and his two hundred pupils were converted to the Dharma, becoming bhikṣus (monks) under the Buddha. He and his brothers and their pupils were the third group to become followers of the Buddha Śākyamuni after his awakening. Also known as Mahāgayākāśyapa.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

Name of a mahābrahmā.

A buddha residing in the northern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva residing in a buddha realm in the western direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One of the four continents of the human world according to traditional Indian cosmology, it is situated to the west of Mount Sumeru.

A sacred stūpa in Khaṣa, said to have been blessed by several past buddhas.

A river in the land of Khaṣa.

See “four great elements.”

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A region of unknown location.

A nāga king.

The lowest of the heavenly realms, it is characterized by freedom from difficulty.

The fifth (counting from the lowest) of the six heavens in the desire realm.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

The highest heaven in the desire realm.

The second-lowest heaven of the desire realm located above Mount Meru and reigned over by Indra, otherwise known as Śakra, and thirty-two other gods.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

One of the eight hot hells.

Name of a sage.

A nāga king.

Supernormal cognitive powers possessed to different degrees by bodhisattvas and buddhas, they are listed as the five higher perceptions or the six higher perceptions.

The highest heaven of the form realm, where a buddha always receives the anointment of the ultimate wisdom, proceeding there mentally from his seat of awakening under the Bodhi tree.

A nāga king.

A family lineage from which many royal families claimed descent, it is the name of an early royal dynasty in India said to be a solar dynasty. Though there are many versions of how the dynasty received its name, they all relate it to the sugar cane (ikṣu). The Buddha Śākyamuni was considered to be in this family line.

A nāga king.

Literally “lord,” this term is an epithet for the god Śiva, but functions more generally in Buddhist texts as a generalized “supreme being” to whom the creation of the universe is attributed.

A nāga king.

A legendary river carrying the remains of the golden fruit of a legendary rose-apple (jambu) tree.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

Name of a sage.

A place where the Buddha often resided, within the Bamboo Park (Veṇuvana) outside Rajagṛha that had been donated to him. The name is said to have arisen when, one day, King Bimbisāra fell asleep after a romantic liaison in the Bamboo Park. While the king rested, his consort wandered off. A snake (the reincarnation of the park’s previous owner, who still resented the king’s acquisition of the park) approached with malign intentions. Through the king’s tremendous merit, a gathering of kalandaka‍—crows or other birds according to Tibetan renderings, but some Sanskrit and Pali sources suggest flying squirrels‍—miraculously appeared and began squawking. Their clamor alerted the king’s consort to the danger, who rushed back and hacked the snake to pieces, thereby saving the king’s life. King Bimbisāra then named the spot Kalandakanivāpa (“Kalandakas’ Feeding Ground”), sometimes (though not in the Vinayavastu) given as Kalandakanivāsa (“Kalandakas’ Abode”) in their honor. The story is told in the Saṃghabhedavastu (Toh 1, ch.17, Degé Kangyur vol.4, folio 77.b et seq.). For more details and other origin stories, see the 84000 Knowledge Base article Veṇuvana and Kalandakanivāpa.

One of the six buddhas who preceded Śākyamuni in this Fortunate Eon.

The capital city of the Śākya kingdom, which is where the Bodhisattva (i.e., Siddhārtha Gautama before his awakening) grew up.

A nāga king.

The northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent.

One of the six buddhas who preceded Śākyamuni in this Fortunate Eon. Also the name of one of the Buddha Śākyamuni’s principal pupils.

Ugly spirits with rotting bodies.

The first monk that the Buddha Śākyamuni recognized as having understood his teachings.

Another name for Indra. Kauśika, Śakra, and Indra all refer to the same god, of central importance in the Vedas, who in Buddhist cosmology is regarded as the king of gods in the realm of desire.

Paltsek (eighth to early ninth century), from the village of Kawa north of Lhasa, was one of Tibet’s preeminent translators. He was one of the first seven Tibetans to be ordained by Śāntarakṣita and is counted as one of Guru Rinpoché’s twenty-five close disciples. In a famous verse by Ngok Lotsawa Loden Sherab, Kawa Paltsek is named along with Chokro Lui Gyaltsen and Zhang (or Nanam) Yeshé Dé as part of a group of translators whose skills were surpassed only by Vairotsana.He translated works from a wide variety of genres, including sūtra, śāstra, vinaya, and tantra, and was an author himself. Paltsek was also one of the most important editors of the early period, one of nine translators installed by Tri Songdetsen (r. 755–797/800) to supervise the translation of the Tripiṭaka and help catalog translated works for the first two of three imperial catalogs, the Denkarma (ldan kar ma) and the Samyé Chimpuma (bsam yas mchims phu ma). In the colophons of his works, he is often known as Paltsek Rakṣita (rak+Shi ta).

An alternative name for the ancient kingdom of Khotan which was located on the southern branch of the Silk Road that passed through the Tarim Basin. The kingdom, which was an important oasis and center for trade, existed during the first millennium ᴄᴇ.

A buddha residing in the southern direction at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

An ancient kingdom in North India.

One of the six buddhas who preceded Śākyamuni in this Fortunate Eon.

A nāga king.

The second highest of the four classes in the Indian caste system, it is associated with warriors, the aristocracy, and kings.

In this instances, the name of a demon leader. This name generally belongs to Vaiśravaṇa, one of the four great kings.

A class of beings subordinate to the great king of the south, Virūḍhaka. The name is a play on the word āṇḍa, which means “egg” but is a euphemism for testicle, as they are often depicted as having testicles as big as pots (from khumba, or “pot”).

A mountain in Pūrvavideha.

One of the initial levels of realization on the path of the hearers. Depending on classification system it is either the first or the second level (when it is preceded by the Śuklavipaśyanā level).

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A synonym for ultimate reality.

A nāga.

A nāga prince.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

An ancient Indian kingdom that lay to the south of the Ganges River in what today is the state of Bihar. Magadha was the largest of the sixteen “great states” (mahājanapada) that flourished between the sixth and third centuries ʙᴄᴇ in northern India. During the life of the Buddha Śākyamuni, it was ruled by King Bimbisāra and later by Bimbisāra's son, Ajātaśatru. Its capital was initially Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir) but was later moved to Pāṭaliputra (modern-day Patna). Over the centuries, with the expansion of the Magadha’s might, it became the capital of the vast Mauryan empire and seat of the great King Aśoka.This region is home to many of the most important Buddhist sites, including Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained awakening; Vulture Peak (Gṛdhra­kūṭa), where the Buddha bestowed many well-known Mahāyāna sūtras; and the Buddhist university of Nālandā that flourished between the fifth and twelfth centuries ᴄᴇ, among many others.

Beings from the third heaven of the realm of form, meaning “great Brahmā.”

Alternate name of Gayākāśyapa, the brother of Nadīkāśyapa and Uruvilvākāśyapa. A practitioner of fire offering at Uruvilvā (Bodhgaya), he and his two hundred pupils were converted to becoming bhikṣus (monks) under the Buddha. He and his brothers and their pupils were the third group to become followers of the Buddha Śākyamuni after his awakening.

A collection of seventeen sūtras on a range of themes, compiled as a separate collection. Today, this collection only exists in Chinese translation, although several of the individual scriptures exist in Sanskrit and in Tibetan translation.

One of the most frequently used names for Śiva. The name is often synonymous with Īśvara, but it is sometimes presented as that of a separate deity.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

A past buddha under whom Śākyamuni acquired merit along the first through ninth bhūmis, according to the Mahāvastu.

Name of a buddha realm located in the northern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Also called Manifestation of All Sounds.

Name of a buddha realm located in the northern direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Also called Manifestation of All Perfumes.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

A city in the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately fifty kilometers north of Agra.

Alternate name for Mahāmaudgalyāyana, one of the closest disciples of the Buddha Śākyamuni, who was known for his miraculous abilities.

A nāga king.

A mountain in Khaṣa. Gośṛṅga means “cow horn” in Sanskrit and the hill is said to have received this name due to having two pointed peaks.

A mountain located near Mount Sumeru.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A buddha realm in the past.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

Period of time in ancient India that corresponds to the thirtieth part of a full day.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

One of the main nāga kings, usually associated with the nāga king Upananda.

A location in Jambudvīpa.

An alternate name for Viṣṇu (khyab ’jug).

A demon leader.

One who has achieved the third level of attainment on the path of the hearers and is free from further rebirth in the desire realm.

A class of supernatural beings that rob the strength of beings.

A nāga king.

One of the major North Indian kingdoms in the Buddha’s time, it was located to the west of the kingdom of Kośala and east of Kuru.

Killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, gossip, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views.

Not engaging in the paths of the ten nonvirtuous actions: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, gossip, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views.

See “six perfections.”

A class of nonhumans said to dwell in impure and perilous places, where they feed on impure things, including flesh.

A nāga king.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

The second heaven in the realm of form. Also called Brahmapariṣadya.

Name of a sage.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

The name of a lunar asterism. Its chief star is known as Beta Geminorum in the occidental tradition.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

One of the four continents of the human world according to traditional Indian cosmology, it is situated to the east of Mount Sumeru.

A class of disease-causing spirits associated with cemeteries and dead bodies.

A bodhisattva residing in a buddha realm in the eastern direction at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A female rākṣasa.

A nāga king.

Downfalls are actions of body, speech, and mind that cause one to fall from the path of awakening and, in the cases of root downfalls, to fall into the lower realms of existence.

A son of Māra.

Name of a location in Khaṣa.

A buddha residing in the western direction during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A nāga king.

An ancient Indian spiritual title, especially for divinely inspired individuals credited with creating the foundations for all Indian culture.

This present universe of ours, usually referring to the whole trichiliocosm but at times only to our own world with its four continents surrounding Mount Sumeru. Sahā means “endurance,” as beings here have to endure suffering.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

Name of the ancient tribe in which the Buddha was born as a prince; their kingdom was based to the east of Kośala, in the foothills near the present-day border of India and Nepal, with Kapilavastu as its capital.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.

A nāga king.

Literally “The Melodious One.” The goddess of eloquence and learning.

One of the principal śrāvaka disciples of the Buddha, he was renowned for his discipline and for having been praised by the Buddha as foremost of the wise (often paired with Maudgalyā­yana, who was praised as foremost in the capacity for miraculous powers). His father, Tiṣya, to honor Śāriputra’s mother, Śārikā, named him Śāradvatīputra, or, in its contracted form, Śāriputra, meaning “Śārikā’s Son.”

According to traditional accounts, the Kashmiri preceptor Sarvajñādeva was among the “one hundred” paṇḍitas invited by Trisong Detsen (r. 755–797/800) to assist with the translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan. Sarvajñādeva assisted in the translation of more than twenty-three works, including numerous sūtras and the first translations of Śāntideva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra and Nāgārjuna’s Suhṛllekha. Much of this work was likely carried out in the first years of the ninth century and may have continued into the reign of Ralpachen (ral pa can), who ascended the throne in 815 and died in 838 or 841 ᴄᴇ.

The best known of many sets of past buddhas, including Śākyamuni as the seventh, his three predecessors in this eon (Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa), and the three last buddhas of the previous eon (Vipaśyin, Śikhin, and Viśvabhū).

The set of seven precious materials or substances includes a range of precious metals and gems, but their exact list varies. The set often consists of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, red pearls, emeralds, and white coral, but may also contain lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, diamonds, etc. The term is frequently used in the sūtras to exemplify preciousness, wealth, and beauty, and can describe treasures, offering materials, or the features of architectural structures such as stūpas, palaces, thrones, etc. The set is also used to describe the beauty and prosperity of buddha realms and the realms of the gods.In other contexts, the term saptaratna can also refer to the seven precious possessions of a cakravartin or to a set of seven precious moral qualities.

The seven riches of noble beings: faith, discipline, generosity, learning, modesty, humility, and insight.

One of the six buddhas who preceded Śākyamuni in this Fortunate Eon.

Divine sight, divine hearing, knowledge of the minds of others, remembrance of past lives, ability to perform miracles, and the knowledge that all mental defilements have been destroyed.

The trainings of the bodhisattva path: generosity, discipline, patience, diligence, concentration, and insight.

Six sets of similar dharmas under which all compounded and uncompounded dharmas may be included: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind, and their objects‍—visible forms, sounds, smells, flavors, tangibles, and dharmas.

Someone who has attained liberation without relying on a teacher in their final lifetime and as a result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, does not have the accumulated merit and motivation to teach others. Like śrāvaka (“hearer”), this term is also used to denote Buddhists who do not follow the Mahāyāna.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

One of the basic forms of Buddhist meditation, aimed at developing insight into the nature of reality. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being “tranquility.”

First of the four formless absorptions.

Fourth of the four formless absorptions.

Name of the third of the four formless realms and of the third formless concentration, so termed because in its preparatory phase absolute nothingness is the object of meditation.

This refers to the miraculous perceptual transformation that ensues when one (1) regards lesser external forms, (2) regards greater external forms, (3) regards blue external forms, (4) regards yellow external forms, (5) regards red external forms, (6) regards white external forms, (7) abides in the sphere of infinite space, or (8) abides in the sphere of infinite consciousness.

The ten spheres of totality comprise the total meditative immersion into (1) the earth element, (2) the water element, (3) the fire element, (4) the wind element, (5) the space element, (6) blueness, (7) yellowness, (8) redness, (9) whiteness, and (10) consciousness.

“Glorious Great Goddess.” This is also a widespread name in Hindu contexts; it is, for example, an epithet of Śiva’s consort, but this name could refer to a number of different figures.

Name of a sage.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

An earth goddess.

A person who has entered the “stream” of practice that leads to nirvāṇa. The first of the four attainments of the path of the hearers.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

The four qualities of limitless love, compassion, joy, and equanimity.

The Buddha Śākyamuni’s father and king of the Śākyas.

The fourth and lowest of the classes in the Indian caste system, it generally encompasses the laboring class.

A bodhisattva at the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Name of a demon.

A nāga king.

A nāga king.

A demon leader.

A god.

A nāga king.

The ten levels of a bodhisattva’s development into a fully awakened buddha.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

These are the major physical marks that identify the buddha body of emanation and which also, in some sources and traditions, portend the advent of a universal monarch.

Emptiness, absence of marks, and absence of wishes.

The Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha.

The animal, preta, and hell realms.

The Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha.

The desire realm, form realm, and formless realm.

The three root emotional defilements (kleśa): desire, hatred, and delusion. Also known as the three poisons (triviṣa).

Three fetters to be abandoned on the path of seeing: the view of the transitory collection, viewing discipline as supreme, and harboring doubt.

The hearer, solitary buddha, and bodhisattva vehicles.

A nāga king.

A past buddha.

One of the basic forms of Buddhist meditation, which focuses on calming the mind. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being “special insight.”

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

One of the main nāga kings, usually associated with the nāga king Nanda.

A sage with a human body and the face of a donkey and expert in astrology, he was a past life of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The northern continent of the human world according to traditional Indian cosmology, literally meaning “northern unpleasant sound.”

Name of a sage.

A great city during the Buddha Śākyamuni’s time, it was the capital of the Licchavi republic; at present it is the town of Basarh in the Indian state of Bihar. It is the site where the Buddha Śākyamuni laid down various rules of the Vinaya, gave other teachings, and, on his last visit, announced his approaching parinirvāṇa.

The second lowest of the four classes in the Indian caste system, it generally includes the merchants and farmers.

The site of a buddha’s awakening, referring to the vajra seat of any buddha realm.

An important bodhisattva, “Wielder of the Vajra,” whose compassion is to manifest in a terrific form to protect the practitioners of the Dharma from harmful influences.

City in North India where the Buddha Śākyamuni first taught the Dharma.

A nāga king.

A holy site blessed by the presence of sages.

A nāga king.

Another name for the solitary buddha vehicle.

A forest monastery north of Rājagṛha where the Buddha Śākyamuni spent several monsoon retreats and delivered many Great Vehicle teachings.

An epithet for a buddha.

A past king.

A mountain in Uttarakuru.

A buddha realm.

According to Nyangral Nyima Öser’s history, Ralpachen invited the Indian abbot Vidyākaraprabha to Tibet along with Jinamitra, Surendrabodhi, and Dānaśīla in the first part of the ninth century. Vidyākaraprabha was the author of the Madhyamaka­nayasāra­samāsa­prakaraṇa, a work in the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka school pioneered by Śāntarakṣita, translated into Tibetan with Paltsek under the name dbu ma’i lugs kyi snying po mdor bsdus pa’i rab tu byed pa (Toh 3893). He worked with Paltsek on numerous other translations on topics as diverse as the Sphuṭārthā commentary to the Abhisamayālaṅkāra , an extract from the Vimuktimārga, and the early Vidyottamamahātantra .

One of the sixteen great bodhisattvas. The names of the sixteen vary from text to text.

One of the six buddhas who preceded Śākyamuni in this Fortunate Eon.

A nāga king.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

Another name for the realm of the pretas.

Used both as an epithet of buddhas and to refer to the final accomplishment of the śrāvaka path.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

The son of a wealthy merchant in Vārāṇasī. After the five excellent disciples, Yaśas was the next to go forth and receive ordination. He was followed in short order by Pūrṇa, Vimala, Gavāmpati, and Subāhu, all five together being referred to as the “five excellent companions.”

Tibetan translator of the ninth century.