A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A river in the town of Great Sands in the future.

The daughter of the king Increasing Majesty

The name of a Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The five psycho-physical constituents of an individual, which are collectively taken as a “self.”

Lit. “Not Disturbed” or “Immovable One.” The buddha in the eastern realm of Abhirati. A well-known buddha in Mahāyāna, regarded in the higher tantras as the head of one of the five buddha families, the vajra family in the east.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of nonhuman beings, usually female, known for their beauty.

The ancient Indian army was composed of four branches (caturaṅga)‍—infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The historical Indian king of the Maurya dynasty who ruled over most of India c. 268–232 ʙᴄᴇ. His name means “without sorrow.”

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class or powerful nonhuman beings, sometimes called demigods, who are often portrayed as the enemies of the devas. One of the six classes of beings.

This stock phrase refers to states of peace or absence of disturbing thoughts and emotions. In his commentary on the Kāśyapa­parivarta, Sthiramati correlates these three states of peace with deepening stages of meditation on the Buddhist path.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A land in the southern region in the future.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A country in the southern region in the distant future.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).

The term bhikṣuṇī, often translated as “nun,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term bhikṣu (to which the female grammatical ending ṇī is added) literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist nuns and monks‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a bhikṣuṇī follows 364 rules and a bhikṣu follows 253 rules as part of their moral discipline.For the first few years of the Buddha’s teachings in India, there was no ordination for women. It started at the persistent request and display of determination of Mahāprajāpatī, the Buddha’s stepmother and aunt, together with five hundred former wives of men of Kapilavastu, who had themselves become monks. Mahāprajāpatī is thus considered to be the founder of the nun’s order.

This term in its broadest sense can refer to any being, whether human, animal, or nonhuman. However, it is often used to refer to a specific class of nonhuman beings, especially when bhūtas are mentioned alongside rākṣasas, piśācas, or pretas. In common with these other kinds of nonhumans, bhūtas are usually depicted with unattractive and misshapen bodies. Like several other classes of nonhuman beings, bhūtas take spontaneous birth. As their leader is traditionally regarded to be Rudra-Śiva (also known by the name Bhūta), with whom they haunt dangerous and wild places, bhūtas are especially prominent in Śaivism, where large sections of certain tantras concentrate on them.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A preta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The buddhafield of the buddha Amitābha.

A being who is dedicated to the cultivation and fulfilment of the altruistic intention to attain perfect buddhahood, traversing the ten bodhisattva levels (daśabhūmi, sa bcu). Bodhisattvas purposely opt to remain within cyclic existence in order to liberate all sentient beings, instead of simply seeking personal freedom from suffering. In terms of the view, they realize both the selflessness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena.

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

The heaven of Brahmā, usually located just above the desire realm (kāmadhātu) as one of the first levels of the form realm (rūpadhātu) and equated with the state that one achieves in the first meditative absorption (dhyāna).

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The innate potential for realizing Buddhahood. Sometimes rendered as “buddha nature,” it is similar to the essence of the Tathāgata.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

A prince of Pañcāla.

In Buddhist usage, a general term for non-Buddhist religious mendicants, often occurring paired with Skt. parivrājaka (“wanderer”) in stock lists of followers of non-Buddhist traditions.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An epithet for a buddha.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A flaw or taint, often used synonymously with “affliction.”

The name of a royal capital in the southern region in the distant future.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A cousin of the Buddha Śākyamuni, generally portrayed as a jealous rival who committed hostile acts against the Buddha in attempt to usurp his leadership.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

A type of incantation. Also used to refer to the mental capacity to retain teachings that one has heard and to mnemonic devices used to aid such retention.

The Buddha as the embodiment of his teachings, the all-encompassing aspect of absolute reality.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The realm of the ultimate reality of the emptiness of all phenomena.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Upholding ethical conduct of body, speech, and mind. Second of the six or ten perfections.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Eight stages in the pursuit of liberation. One common formulation of these stages is: (1) the liberation of viewing form while internally possessing the notion of form; (2) the liberation of viewing form while internally free from the notion of form; (3) the liberation of observing the sublime; (4) the liberation of the sensory sphere of infinite space; (5) the liberation of the sensory sphere of infinite consciousness; (6) the liberation of the sensory sphere of nothingness; (7) the liberation of the sensory sphere in which there are neither concepts nor the absence of concepts; (8) the liberation of the cessation of concepts and feelings.

Eight types of external circumstances that hinders one’s ability to practice Buddhism: being born in the realms of (1) the hells, (2) pretas, (3) animals, and (4) long-lived gods; in the human realm among (5) barbarians or (6) extremists, and (7) in places where the Buddhist teachings do not exist; and (8) without adequate faculties to understand the teachings where they do exist.

The eighteen elements of sensory experience, comprising the six sense-organs, their six objects, and the six consciousnesses associated with them.

The aspect of the Buddha that appears to ordinary sentient beings.

A body that a bodhisattva manifests for the sake of sentient beings.

The “three gateways to liberation”‍—absence of inherent existence, absence of mental constructs, and absence of hopes and fears.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of a royal family in the distant future.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A gandharva king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A gandharva king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A cosmic period of time. According to the traditional Abhidharma understanding of cyclical time, a great eon (mahākalpa) is divided into eighty lesser or intermediate eons. In the course of one great eon, the external universe and its sentient life takes form and later disappears. During the first twenty of the lesser eons, the universe is in the process of creation and expansion (vivartakalpa); during the next twenty it remains created; during the third twenty it is in the process of destruction or contraction (saṃvartakalpa); and during the last quarter of the cycle it remains in a state of destruction (saṃvarta­sthāyi­kalpa).

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A gandharva king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

The innate potential for becoming a tathāgata that all beings possess. Also refers to a class of discourses that proclaim this teaching.

The eighty-minor marks that distinguish a buddha.

The name of the river Fine Blackness in a future eon.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kumbhāṇḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A river in the country of Benighted in the distant future.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Five aspects of life that indicate the degenerate nature of a given age. They are the impurities of views, of afflictions, of sentient beings, of lifespan, and of time.

Refers to the five fundamental precepts of abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and consuming intoxicants.

Five extrasensory powers that come at higher levels of meditative cultivation: divine sight, divine hearing, knowing how to manifest miracles, remembering previous lives, and knowing the minds of others.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A gandharva king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The present eon, which is “fortunate” because a thousand buddhas will appear in succession during this time.

The four elements‍—earth, water, fire, and wind‍—that make up all physical objects, including the body.

The four fruitions of the śrāvaka vehicle: stream entry, once-returning, non-returning, and worthy one.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

Four ways of attracting people to the Buddhist teachings: charity, kind words, beneficial conduct, and practicing what one preaches.

Four undesirable states of rebirth: within the hells, as a preta, as an animal, and as an asura.

The powerful nonhuman guardian kings of the four quarters‍—Virūḍhaka, Virūpākṣa, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, and Vaiśravaṇa‍—who rule, respectively, over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south, nāgas in the west, gandharvas in the east, and yakṣas in the north. Also known as the Four Great Kings.

Monks, nuns, and male and female lay practitioners.

A city in a future eon, in the world system Refined Purity.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A daughter of Māra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The family name of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A set of stairs leading down to the banks of a river or pond, often used for bathing.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Direct knowledge of emptiness and ultimate reality.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of a bodhisattva in this discourse.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Dharma king during the time of the buddha Lamp of the Nāga Family.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kumbhāṇḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra.

A disciple of the tathāgata Lamp of the Nāga Family.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A town in the land of Bald Ṛṣi in the future.

A great wind king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A great wind king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

A group of six monks who are portrayed in Vinaya texts as constantly pushing the limits of the disciplinary rules established for the monastic community.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A king who rules over only half the area of a full cakravartin.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The second of the six heavens in the desire realm, it is ruled by Indra and thirty-two other gods.

A set of subterranean prisons whose denizens undergo various tortures as retribution for their misdeeds. Also, a denizen of those realms, one of the six classes of beings.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A vidyādhara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A vidyādhara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The term is usually used for wealthy lay patrons of the Buddhist community. It also refers to a subdivision of the vaiśya (mercantile) class of traditional Indian society, comprising businessmen, merchants, landowners, and so on.

The name of a king in the southern region in the distant future.

The name of a tathāgata in a future eon in the world system Refined Purity.

The lord of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven on the summit of Mount Sumeru. As one of the eight guardians of the directions, Indra guards the eastern quarter. In Buddhist sūtras, he is a disciple of the Buddha and protector of the Dharma and its practitioners. He is often referred to by the epithets Śatakratu, Śakra, and Kauśika.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

The name of a bodhisattva in this discourse.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A stage in the gradual progression toward buddhahood, from which one will no longer regress to lower states.

Legendary river carrying the golden fruit fallen from the legendary jambu (“rose apple”) tree.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

A Brahmā youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

A gandharva king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ruler of a stronghold in the future.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

A world system in the southern direction.

Kalandaka­nivāpa means “feeding place of the kalandakas,” and kalandaka may refer either to a flying squirrel or to a bird, as explained by differing sources. The Kalandakanivāpa was a place within the bamboo grove near Rājagṛha where the Buddha regularly stayed and gave teachings. It was situated on land donated by King Śreṇya Bimbisāra of Magadha and, as such, was the first of several landholdings donated to the Buddhist community during the time of the Buddha.

A mythical bird with the most beautiful call.

Another name for the goddess Durga.

See “Kātyāyanī.”

A brahmin described as a master grammarian.

A village.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

A type of incantation used in meditative and ritual contexts.

An ancient Indian kingdom located in present-day Uttar Pradesh that was ruled by King Prasenajit during the time of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Another name for Kārttikeya, the son of Śiva, also known as Skanda.

A class of nonhuman beings.

A tathāgata in Jambudvīpa in a past eon.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Subconscious tendencies, reinforced by karmic patterns, that predispose individuals to particular patterns of behavior.

A cuckoo king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of a city-state, whose capital was Vaiśālī, and the ruling clan that dwelt there.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A preta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An apsaras present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

See “twelve links of conditioned existence.”

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goose king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Epithet of the chief of the gods who reside in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Also known as Indra.

A kalaviṅka king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of a bodhisattva present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One of the Buddha Śākyamuni’s foremost disciples. Known for his prowess in ascetic discipline, he became the head of the monastic community after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa.

The Buddha Śākyamuni’s maternal aunt who became the first female renunciant in the Buddhist monastic order.

Epithet of Śiva.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

A mythical sea monster.

Queen of King Prasenajit.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

A world system in the distant future.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra: (1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree‍—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1‍—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputra­māra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.

The thirty-two major marks that distinguish a buddha.

Ancient Indian dynasty, c. 321–185 ʙᴄᴇ, whose empire covered most of India.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Dhyāna is defined as one-pointed abiding in an undistracted state of mind, free from afflicted mental states. Four states of dhyāna are identified as being conducive to birth within the form realm. In the context of the Mahāyāna, it is the fifth of the six perfections. It is commonly translated as “concentration,” “meditative concentration,” and so on.

A gandharva king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

An elephant king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

“Sage.” An epithet for a buddha. Muni is an ancient title, derived from the verb man (“to contemplate”), given to someone who has attained the realization of a truth through their own contemplation and not by divine revelation.

A class of nonhuman serpentine beings. They can change their shape and are usually said to reside in water.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A king among the nāga.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Nine divisions of the Buddhist scriptures.

Followers of the teacher Nirgrantha Jñātiputra, a contemporary of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Usually understood to refer to Jains.

Originally used to refer to other renunciant orders that were contemporary with that of the Buddha Śākyamuni, generally used to refer to any proponent of non-Buddhist teachings.

One who will not be reborn again. Third of the four fruitions.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A preta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One who is bound for only one further rebirth. Second of the four fruitions.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An ancient North Indian kingdom located in present-day Uttar Pradesh.

The final attainment of release from cyclic existence.

A buddha in the southern direction.

A class of nonhuman beings that, like several other classes of nonhuman beings, take spontaneous birth. Ranking below rākṣasas, they are less powerful and more akin to pretas. They are said to dwell in impure and perilous places, where they feed on impure things, including flesh. This could account for the name piśāca, which possibly derives from √piś, to carve or chop meat, as reflected also in the Tibetan sha za, “meat eater.” They are often described as having an unpleasant appearance, and at times they appear with animal bodies. Some possess the ability to enter the dead bodies of humans, thereby becoming so-called vetāla, to touch whom is fatal.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

King of Kośala.

The vows or rules of conduct for those who pursue liberation, sometimes contrasted with the bodhisattva vows.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A lion king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of a future eon.

A peacock king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of a tathāgata in this discourse.

An asura who is said to cause eclipses.

The son of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A class of nonhuman beings that are often, but certainly not always, considered demonic in the Buddhist tradition. They are often depicted as flesh-eating monsters who haunt frightening places and are ugly and evil-natured with a yearning for human flesh, and who additionally have miraculous powers, such as being able to change their appearance.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system Endurance in a future eon.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of superhuman beings who live extremely long lives.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

See “Sacred Goddess Who Upholds the Teachings and Delights in the Great Vehicle.”

See “Sacred Goddess Who Upholds the Teachings and Delights in the Great Vehicle.”

A queen of the Dharma king Great Diligent Nāga.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

Name of the ancient tribe in which the Buddha was born as a prince; their kingdom was based to the east of Kośala, in the foothills near the present-day border of India and Nepal, with Kapilavastu as its capital.

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

A great wind king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

The set of seven precious materials or substances includes a range of precious metals and gems, but their exact list varies. The set often consists of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, red pearls, emeralds, and white coral, but may also contain lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, diamonds, etc. The term is frequently used in the sūtras to exemplify preciousness, wealth, and beauty, and can describe treasures, offering materials, or the features of architectural structures such as stūpas, palaces, thrones, etc. The set is also used to describe the beauty and prosperity of buddha realms and the realms of the gods.In other contexts, the term saptaratna can also refer to the seven precious possessions of a cakravartin or to a set of seven precious moral qualities.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

These are described in the Nirvāṇa Sūtra as (1) raising and fattening sheep for market, (2) butchering sheep for profit, (3) raising and fattening pigs for market, (4) butchering pigs for profit, (5) raising and fattening cattle for market, (6) butchering cattle for profit, (7) raising and fattening fowl for market, (8) butchering fowl for profit, (9) fishing, (10) hunting, being a (11) brigand, (12) executioner, (13) bird catcher, (14) liar, (15) or jailer, and (16) casting incantations on nāgas.

See “sixteen great inexpiable occupations.”

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The name of the city of Rājagṛha in a past eon.

A garuḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”

During the life of the Buddha, Śrāvastī was the capital city of the powerful kingdom of Kośala, ruled by King Prasenajit, who became a follower and patron of the Buddha. It was also the hometown of Anāthapiṇḍada, the wealthy patron who first invited the Buddha there, and then offered him a park known as Jetavana, Prince Jeta’s Grove, which became one of the first Buddhist monasteries. The Buddha is said to have spent about twenty-five rainy seasons with his disciples in Śrāvastī, thus it is named as the setting of numerous events and teachings. It is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh in northern India.

The name of a goddess in this text.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A minister of the Dharma king Great Diligent Nāga.

One who has entered the stream that leads to liberation. The first of the four fruitions.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The Tibetan translates both stūpa and caitya with the same word, mchod rten, meaning “basis” or “recipient” of “offerings” or “veneration.” Pali: cetiya.A caitya, although often synonymous with stūpa, can also refer to any site, sanctuary or shrine that is made for veneration, and may or may not contain relics.A stūpa, literally “heap” or “mound,” is a mounded or circular structure usually containing relics of the Buddha or the masters of the past. It is considered to be a sacred object representing the awakened mind of a buddha, but the symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies throughout the Buddhist world. Stūpas continue to be erected today as objects of veneration and merit making.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A wealthy lay patron of the Buddha Śākyamuni. Also known as Anāthapiṇḍada.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A buddha in the southern direction.

Extrasensory powers that come at higher levels of meditative cultivation. Usually said to number five (see “five superknowledges”).

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The six perfections of generosity, discipline, patience, effort, meditative absorption, and wisdom; plus an additional four: skillful means, prayer, strength, and gnosis.

A kinnara king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The animal, preta, and hell realms.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A kumbhāṇḍa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Brahmā youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

An asura king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

Twelve ascetic practices that renunciants may choose to engage in, they are wearing clothing from a dust heap, owning only three robes, wearing felt or woolen clothes, begging for food, eating one’s meal in a single sitting, restricting the quantity of food, staying in solitude, sitting under trees, sitting in exposed places, sitting in charnel grounds, sitting even during sleep, and staying wherever one happens to be.

The twelve links of dependent arising: ignorance, formations, consciousness, name and form, six entrances, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, old age, and death.

A ṛṣi present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A great wind king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Disciplinary transgressions that must result in the offender’s disrobing and expulsion from the community of renunciants.

See “eight unfree states.”

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The northern continent of the human realm according to Buddhist cosmology.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A world system in the southern direction.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Meaning “extremely extensive,” this is one of the twelve branches of Buddhist scriptures and also a common term for the Great Vehicle discourses.

A yakṣa, one of the Four Great Kings (See “Four World Guardians”).

A substance that is immutable and indestructible. The thunderbolt, weapon of the god Indra.

The aspect of the Buddha that is changeless and indestructible, like a vajra.

A Licchavi youth present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A preta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A devaputra present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A nāga king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A city in the future.

A type of semi-divine being whose identity has shifted over time and genre. In their most popular form they are spell (vidyā) wielding (dhara) beings capable of granting magical abilities to those they favor. The Buddhist tradition associated them more closely with soteriological aims, identifying them as realized beings who possess (dhara) knowledge or awareness (vidyā).

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

Pali paribbājaka. Refers to a class of Indian religious mendicants holding a variety of beliefs who wandered in India from ancient times, including during the time of the Buddha. These peripatetic ascetics, who included women in their number, engaged with one another in debate on a range of topics. Some of their metaphysical views are presented in the early Buddhist discourses of the Pali Canon.

A bhūta king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A goddess present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The wisdom that comes from understanding emptiness and realizing ultimate reality. Sixth of the six or ten perfections.

A yakṣa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A class of guardian deities. Sometimes used to refer to the Four Great Kings (see “Four World Guardians”).

Fourth of the four fruits. An individual who has achieved liberation with the cessation of all mental afflictions.

A class of semidivine beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons. They are often depicted as holding choppers, cleavers, and swords, and are said to dwell in the north, under the jurisdiction of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa.

A rākṣasa king present in the assembly of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

The longest unit of distance in classical India. The lack of a uniform standard for the smaller units means that there is no precise equivalent, especially as its theoretical length tended to increase over time. Therefore, it can mean between four and ten miles.