Said of the aggregates individually, but more commonly in terms of all five as a collective, because they are “the basis of clinging to existence” (Edgerton).

This term, although commonly translated as “appropriation,” also means “grasping” or “clinging,” but it has a particular meaning as the ninth of the twelve links of dependent origination, situated between craving (tṛṣṇā, sred pa) and becoming or existence (bhava, srid pa). In some texts, four types of appropriation (upādāna) are listed: that of desire (rāga), view (dṛṣṭi), rules and observances as paramount (śīla­vrata­parāmarśa), and belief in a self (ātmavāda).

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

The term bhikṣu, often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The Sanskrit term literally means “beggar” or “mendicant,” referring to the fact that Buddhist monks and nuns‍—like other ascetics of the time‍—subsisted on alms (bhikṣā) begged from the laity. In the Tibetan tradition, which follows the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, a monk follows 253 rules as part of his moral discipline. A nun (bhikṣuṇī; dge slong ma) follows 364 rules. A novice monk (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or nun (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma) follows thirty-six rules of moral discipline (although in other vinaya traditions novices typically follow only ten).

See n.­8.

In the context of the psychophysical constituents, refers to the combination of individual sense-consciousnesses related to the five senses, and that of the mind, making five or six constituents depending on the context (and in some texts more) that collectively constitute “consciousness.”

Eighth of the twelve links of dependent origination. Craving is often listed as threefold: craving for the desirable, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence.

The central Buddhist doctrine that teaches how things are empty of self-nature and thus lack independent existence, yet exist provisionally insofar as they are created through the interaction of various causal factors.

This term has multiple interrelated meanings. In this text, the primary meanings are as follows: (1) the doctrine taught by the Buddha (Dharma); (2) the ultimate reality underlying and expressed through the Buddha’s teaching (Dharma); (3) the trainings that the Buddha’s teaching stipulates (dharmas); (4) the various awakened qualities or attainments acquired through practicing and realizing the Buddha’s teaching (dharmas); (5) qualities or aspects more generally, i.e., phenomena or phenomenal attributes (dharmas); and (6) mental objects (dharmas).

See “dharma.”

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

Literally “lord,” this term is an epithet for the god Śiva, but functions more generally in Buddhist texts as a generalized “supreme being” to whom the creation of the universe is attributed.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

The Tibetan term ma ning is broader than any existing English term and refers not only to those whose sexual characteristics are not clearly defined as male or female (intersexual), but also to those who do not have any proper gender organs, those who may have both, and those who are neuter, infertile, or who simply have physical or non-physical characteristics of a ma ning.

“According to Sāṁkhya, the prime substance, from which the material universe evolves, as opposed to puruṣa, pure consciousness.” (Reat, 39 n5).

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

Along with Maudgalyāyana, Śāriputra was one of the two main disciples of the Buddha. Known as a great arhat, he requested some important teachings such as the Prajnāpāramitā sūtras, and is particularly famous for his discriminating insight (prajñā).

The six “inner” sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, tactile sense, and mind), and their respective six “outer” objects of forms, sounds, smells, flavors, tactile objects, and mental objects, are sometimes called collectively the “six sense sources” (q.v.), but are also sometimes taken as two separate groups, making twelve.

The six sense organs of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, tactile sense, and mind, together with their respective objects of forms, sounds, smells, flavors, tactile objects, and mental objects. See also “ sense source .”

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Of formations and modes of consciousness that lead to rebirth in the form and formless realms.

Of formations and modes of consciousness that lead to rebirth in pleasant states within the desire realm.

Of formations and modes of consciousness that lead to rebirth in the three lower realms of animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings.

See “dharma.”

A mountain situated in the vicinity of Rājagṛha where the Prajnāpāramitā sūtras were taught and which continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

A measure of distance, often translated with “league.” The exact value is disputed and varies in different sources from 1 to 40km.