Introduction

i.1The Perfection of Generosity belongs to the general sūtra section of the Tibetan Kangyur. It does not appear to have been translated into Chinese, and we have not come across any mention of its title in Indian commentarial works. It does not seem, therefore, to have had a particularly influential role in Buddhist India. Until recently, it had also not attracted notable attention in modern scholarship. In 2014, however, Jason McCombs included a full translation of The Perfection of Generosity, along with an introduction to the text, in his doctoral dissertation.

i.2As is common with this genre of Buddhist literature, the absence of concrete historical data makes it hard to place the sūtra historically with much certainty. Still, based on particular doctrinal and literary elements, McCombs argues for a tentative date of its being set out in written form somewhere around the fifth or sixth century. To sum up his arguments, the sūtra seems to be fairly developed doctrinally, with various lists of philosophical concepts and practices appearing in their later rather than earlier forms. For example, the text speaks of the ten perfections (pāramitās) rather than the earlier, standard list of six. And perhaps the most significant feature of the sūtra from a historical viewpoint is the mention of three goddesses in attendance at the Buddha’s teaching: Umā (dka’ bzlog ma), Mahāśrīdevī (dpal gyi lha mo chen mo), and Bhairavī (’jigs byed ma). These goddesses generally do not appear in Indian literature until the fifth century, and it is therefore reasonable to accept McCombs’ tentative dating of the sūtra.

i.3The sūtra is set in Kapilavastu, the city in which the Buddha had lived during his childhood and youth, and to which he returned at times after his awakening. It is on one of these occasions that we find him residing in the parks of his father, King Śuddhodhana. In the first chapter, after a lengthy introduction, a bodhisattva asks the Buddha about the practices in which bodhisattvas should exert themselves once they have aroused the mind set on awakening. The Buddha first answers by explaining how to engage with the path of the ten virtuous actions and describing the altruistic attitudes that bodhisattvas should cultivate in this regard. Next, in the second chapter of the sūtra, the Buddha explains how bodhisattvas should endeavor in the practices of the ten perfections, using a repetitive formula interspersed with verses. The Buddha provides a detailed explanation of the way bodhisattvas should practice the perfection of generosity in particular, emphasizing the compassionate motivation that must underlie the act of giving. A particular feature of the sūtra lies in the significance it describes for each of many different kinds of object offered in terms of the specific spiritual attainments, qualities of awakening, and other benefits that will result.

i.4The sūtra was translated into Tibetan by the prolific translator Yeshé Dé sometime during the late eighth or early ninth century, when the majority of sūtras were translated into Tibetan. According to the colophon, Yeshé Dé was assisted in his task by the renowned Indian scholar Prajñāvarman. As further testament to the date of translation, we also find the sūtra included in the ninth century Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) Palace catalog of translated scriptures, where it is grouped under the category of “Mahāyāna, general sūtras of ten or fewer fascicles,” and is said to have two fascicles (bam po), although no fascicle division is recorded in the text. Within the Degé Kangyur itself, the sūtra is placed next to another sūtra that likewise includes the term “generosity” in its title. However, as McCombs points out, The Perfection of Generosity also overlaps significantly in terms of content with larger sections found in other sūtras in the Kangyur. The organizing principle for the arrangement of the text in the Degé Kangyur (and others predominantly of Tshalpa lineage) appears to have had more to do with the title of the sūtra than its content, as is not uncommon when it comes to the structure of the Tibetan Kangyur collections.

i.5The text contains a single chapter colophon (at 1.­37) demarcating the Buddha’s initial teaching on the ten virtuous actions from the part that follows on the ten perfections. To the two chapters thus formed we have added descriptive chapter titles that do not, it should be noted, appear in the source text. This chapter colophon also makes mention of an alternative title for the sūtra, The Array That Ornaments, Adorns, and Decorates All Buddha Qualities (sangs rgyas kyi chos thams cad kyi rgyan dang / spud pa dang / lhab lhub bkod pa).

i.6This English translation is based primarily on the Degé Kangyur version, in consultation with the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace Manuscript Kangyur.