Sixth god realm of form, meaning “luminosity,” it is the highest of the three heavens that make up the second dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

The four abodes of Brahmā are loving kindness, compassion, joy , and equanimity, also known as the four “immeasurables.” The term is also rendered in this translation as “Brahmā abodes.”

In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.

Shorthand for anutpattika­dharma­kṣānti, “acceptance of the nonorigination of phenomena,” its realization being one of the qualities acquired by bodhisattvas. Dharmakṣanti can also refer to a way one becomes “receptive” to key points of the Dharma.

The name of an absorption.

A buddhafield at the zenith, where the Tathāgata Sovereign of Supreme Reverberating Sound resides.

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

Seventeenth god realm of form, meaning “highest,” it is the highest of the five heavens that make up the “pure abodes” in the form realm.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly.

Tenth god realm of form, meaning “cloudless,” it is the lowest of the three realms in the fourth dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly. His name means, “Magical Voice like a Victory Banner of Infinite Eloquence.”

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly. His name means, “Abundant with the Support of the Immeasurable Accumulations of Merit and Wisdom.”

The world realm of the Tathāgata Glory of Precious Blue Lotus.

A buddhafield at the nadir where the Tathāgata Glory of the Precious Red Lotus resides.

Four contemplations on the body, sensation, mind, and phenomena.

Ninth of the twelve links of dependent arising. For the four appropriations, see 2.­225.

Fifth god realm of form, meaning “Immeasurable Light,” it is the second of the three heavens that make up the second dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

Eighth god realm of form, meaning “Limitless Virtue,” it is the second of the three heavens that make up the third dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

One who has achieved the fourth and final level of attainment on the śrāvaka path and who has attained liberation with the cessation of all afflictive emotions.

The name of an absorption.

The name of an absorption.

Twelfth god realm of the form realms, meaning “Beings without Concepts,” it is the third of the three heavens that make up the fourth dhyāna heaven in the form realm. Also called Bṛhatphala.

Powerful beings who live around Mount Meru and are usually classified as belonging to the higher realms. They are characterized as jealous and ambitious, forever in conflict with the gods.

Fourteenth god realm of form, meaning “Without Hardship,” it is the second of the five “pure abodes” in the form realm.

Thirteenth god realm of form, it is the first of the five heavens that make up the “pure abodes” in the form realm.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

Four qualities that eliminate negative factors: zeal, vigor, attention (Tib. sems pa, Skt. citta), and investigation (Tib. dpyod pa, Skt. mīmāṃsā).

The tenth of the twelve links of dependent arising.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

The name of a dhāraṇī.

Also translated here as “thought of awakening.”

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

See “abodes of Brahmā.”

The heaven of Brahmā, usually located just above the desire realm as one of the first levels of the form realm and equated with the state that one achieves in the first concentration (dhyāna). Its extent varies depending on the source.

First god realm of form, meaning “Stratum of Brahmā,” it is the lowest of the three heavens that make up the first dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

Second god realm of form, meaning “Assembly of Brahmā,” it is the second of the three heavens that make up the first dhyāna heaven in the form realm. Also called Brahma­purohita.

Second god realm of form, meaning “high priests of Brahmā,” it is the second of the three heavens that make up the first dhyāna heaven in the form realm. Also called Brahma­pariṣadya.

Twelfth god realm of the form realms, meaning “Great Fruition,” it is the third of the three heavens that make up the fourth dhyāna heaven in the form realm. Also called Asaṃjñisattva.

A buddhafield in the southern direction of the Tathāgata Countless Qualities Precious Courage.

The name of an absorption.

This term can refer to the general qualities of a buddha or to specific sets such as the ten strengths, the four fearlessnesses, the four discernments, and the eighteen unique buddha qualities; or even more specifically to another set of eighteen: the ten strengths; the four fearlessnesses; mindfulness of body, speech, and mind; and great compassion.

An ancient title, derived from the verb man (“to contemplate”), given to those who have attained the realization of a truth through their own contemplation and not by divine revelation. Also rendered here as “sage.”Used here as an epithet of the buddhas and of the Buddha Śākyamuni in particular.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

The lowest of the six god realms of the desire realm. See “Catur­mahā­rāja.”

One of the abodes of Brahmā, the other being: loving kindness or love, equanimity, and joy.

The name of an absorption.

Dhyāna is defined as one-pointed abiding in an undistracted state of mind, free from afflicted mental states. Four states of dhyāna are identified as being conducive to birth within the form realm. In the context of the Mahāyāna, it is the fifth of the six perfections. It is commonly translated as “concentration,” “meditative concentration,” and so on.

The name of an absorption.

A tathāgata in the southeastern buddhafield Sorrowless.

Also translated here as “empowerment.”

Literally, “to flow” or “to ooze.” Mental defilements or contaminations that “flow out” toward the objects of cyclic existence, binding us to them. Vasubandhu offers two alternative explanations of this term: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Avīci hell, out of the six wounds that are the sense fields” (Abhidharma­kośa­bhāṣya 5.40; Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The Summit of Existence (bhavāgra, srid pa’i rtse mo) is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called Avīci (mnar med) is the lowest; the six sense fields (āyatana, skye mched) here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal sense fields.Also translated here as “defilement.” For the four contaminants, see 2.­225.

The four correct exertions are (1) abandoning existing negative mental states, (2) abandoning the production of such states, (3) giving rise to virtuous states of mind that are not yet produced, (4) and letting those states continue.

(1) A tathāgata in the buddhafield in the northern direction called Fully Adorned with Jewels. (2) A tathāgata in the buddhafield in the southern direction called Buddha Courage.

Also translated here as “eloquence.”

One of the thirty-two signs, or major marks, of a great being. In its simplest form it is a pointed shape of the head like a turban (the Sanskrit term, uṣṇīṣa, in fact means “turban”), or more elaborately a dome-shaped extension. The extension is described as having various extraordinary attributes such as emitting and absorbing rays of light or reaching an immense height.

The forest, located outside of Vārāṇasī, where the Buddha first taught the Dharma.

Literally, “to flow” or “to ooze.” Mental defilements or contaminations that “flow out” toward the objects of cyclic existence, binding us to them. Vasubandhu offers two alternative explanations of this term: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Avīci hell, out of the six wounds that are the sense fields” (Abhidharma­kośa­bhāṣya 5.40; Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The Summit of Existence (bhavāgra, srid pa’i rtse mo) is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called Avīci (mnar med) is the lowest; the six sense fields (āyatana, skye mched) here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal sense fields.Also translated here as “contamination.”

This term is also translated as ‘renunciation’ and denotes the practitioner’s mind turning away from the bonds of saṃsāra and towards liberation.

The relative nature of phenomena, which arises in dependence on causes and conditions. Together with the four noble truths, this was the first teaching given by the Buddha. See “twelve links of dependent arising.”

One of the three realms of saṃsāra, characterized by the prevalence of sense desire.

See “gods.”

An incantation, spell, or mnemonic formula that distills essential points of the Dharma and is used by practitioners to attain mundane and supramundane goals. It also has the sense of “retention,” referring to the special capacity of practitioners to memorize and recall detailed teachings. Also translated here as “retention.”

The name of a Bodhisattva. The principal interlocutor of The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata, where he also gives a discourse of his own.

An early term used to denote the Buddha’s teaching. “Dharma” refers to the sūtras and “Vinaya” to the rules of discipline.

The name of a bodhisattva. One of the more prominent interlocutors in The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata, he is instrumental in instigating the Buddha’s discourse.

Also translated here as “vigor.”

See “four types of discriminating knowledge.”

The name of a tathāgata absorption.

The name of a light.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly.

These consist of the opposites of the eight branches of the eightfold path: wrong view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and absorption.

The first three liberations occur within the form realm: (1) liberation of the embodied looking at form (gzugs can gzugs la blta ba’i rnam thar), (2) liberation of the formless looking at a form (gzugs med gzugs la blta ba’i rnam thar), and (3) liberation through beautiful form (sdug pa’i rnam par thar pa); and the latter five occur within the formless realm: (4) liberation of infinite space (nam mkha’ mtha’ yas kyi rnam thar), (5) liberation of infinite consciousness (rnam shes mtha’ yas kyi rnam thar), (6) liberation of nothingness (ci yang med pa’i rnam thar), (7) liberation of the peak of existence (srid rtsi’i rnam thar), and (8) liberation of cessation (’gog pa’i rnam thar).

The path leading to the attainment of an arhat, consisting of correct view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and absorption.

A person who is eight steps away in the arc of their development from becoming an arhat (Tib. dgra bcom pa). Specifically, this term refers to one who is on the cusp of becoming a stream-enterer (Skt. śrotāpanna; Tib. rgyun du zhugs pa), and is the first and lowest stage in a list of eight stages or classes of a noble person (Skt. āryapudgala). The person at this lowest stage in the sequence is still on the path of seeing (Skt. darśanamārga; Tib. mthong lam), and then enters the path of cultivation (Skt. bhāvanāmārga; Tib. sgoms lam) upon attaining the next stage, that of a stream-enterer (stage 7). From there they progress through the remaining stages of the śrāvaka path, becoming in turn a once-returner (stages six and five), a non-returner (stages four and three), and an arhat (stages two and one). This same “eighth stage” also appears in set of ten stages (Skt. daśabhūmi; Tib. sa bcu) found in Mahāyāna sources, where it is the third step out of the ten. Not to be confused with the ten stages of the bodhisattva’s path, these ten stages mark the progress of one who sequentially follows the paths of a śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, and then bodhisattva on their way to complete buddhahood. In this set of ten stages a person “on the eighth stage” is similarly one who is on the cusp of becoming a stream-enterer.

One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements (eye and form, ear and sound, nose and odor, tongue and taste, body and tactile sensation, mind and mental objects, to which the six consciousnesses are added).Also refers to the “ four elements .”

Also translated here as “courage.”

Also translated here as “consecration.”

Emptiness denotes the ultimate nature of reality, the total absence of inherent existence and self-identity with respect to all phenomena. According to this view, all things and events are devoid of any independent, intrinsic reality that constitutes their essence. Nothing can be said to exist independent of the complex network of factors that gives rise to its origination, nor are phenomena independent of the cognitive processes and mental constructs that make up the conventional framework within which their identity and existence are posited. When all levels of conceptualization dissolve and when all forms of dichotomizing tendencies are quelled through deliberate meditative deconstruction of conceptual elaborations, the ultimate nature of reality will finally become manifest. It is the first of the three gateways to liberation.

A buddhafield in the eastern direction where the Tathāgata Immaculate Pure Precious Light, Sovereign of the Uninterrupted Luminous Display of Dharma Endowed with the Factors of Awakening resides.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings. The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

The name of a dhāraṇī.

The name of a dhāraṇī.

One of the factors of awakening and one of the abodes of Brahmā, the other being: loving kindness or love, joy, and compassion.

This term denotes the ontological status of phenomena, according to which they are said to possess existence in their own right‍—inherently, in and of themselves, objectively, and independent of any other phenomena such as our conception and labelling. The absence of such an ontological reality is defined as the true nature of reality, emptiness.

The three lower realms of animals, pretas, and hell beings. Also translated as “sad destinies” and “miserable destinies.”

The seven factors of awakening are listed in The Teaching on the Great Compassion of the Tathāgata as correct mindfulness, correct investigation of phenomena, correct vigor, correct joy , correct serenity, correct meditative absorption, and correct equanimity.

Most commonly refers to the cognitive faculties: the five senses plus the mental faculty. Also used here to refer to various faculties in a more general sense. See also the “five spiritual faculties.”

One of the factors of awakening. It is also included in the lists of the five spiritual faculties, the five strengths, and the seven riches.

The name of a light.

See “four types of fearlessness.”

One of the five aggregates and the seventh of the twelve links of dependent arising.

Five impediments to meditation: sense desire (’dod pa la ’dun pa, kāmacchanda), ill will (gnod sems, vyāpāda), drowsiness and torpor (rmugs pa dang gnyid, styānamiddha), agitation and guilt (rgod pa dang ’gyod pa, auddhatya­kaukṛtya), and doubt (the tshom, vicikitsā).

Faith, vigor, mindfulness, absorption, and insight.

A shorter form of the six classes of beings, these are (1) hell beings, (2) pretas, (3) animals, (4) human beings, and (5) gods. The fifth category is divided into gods and asuras when six realms are enumerated.

Faith, vigor, mindfulness, absorption, and insight. Although the same as the five spiritual faculties, they are stronger in terms of not being shaken by adverse conditions.

One of the three realms of saṃsāra, characterized by subtle materiality and the lack of coarse desire as in the desire realm.

As one of the five aggregates and the second of the twelve links of dependent arising, these are complex propensities that bring about actions. This term may also refer to composite objects or conditioned things in the generic sense.

One of the three realms of saṃsāra, characterized by having only subtle mental form.

The four levels of concentration related to the form realm.

According to traditional Buddhist cosmology, our universe consists of a central mountain, known as Mount Meru or Sumeru, surrounded by four island continents (dvīpa), one in each of the four cardinal directions. The Abhidharmakośa explains that each of these island continents has a specific shape and is flanked by two smaller subcontinents of similar shape. To the south of Mount Meru is Jambudvīpa, corresponding either to the Indian subcontinent itself or to the known world. It is triangular in shape, and at its center is the place where the buddhas attain awakening. The humans who inhabit Jambudvīpa have a lifespan of one hundred years. To the east is Videha, a semicircular continent inhabited by humans who have a lifespan of two hundred fifty years and are twice as tall as the humans who inhabit Jambudvīpa. To the north is Uttarakuru, a square continent whose inhabitants have a lifespan of a thousand years. To the west is Godānīya, circular in shape, where the lifespan is five hundred years.

Earth, water, fire, and wind. Also called “four great elements.”

Earth, water, fire, and wind. Also called “ four elements .”

The deities ruled over by Māra are also symbolic of the defects within a person that prevent awakening. These four personifications are (1) devaputra­māra (lha’i bu’i bdud), the divine māra, which is the distraction of pleasures, (2) mṛtyumāra (’chi bdag gi bdud), the māra of the Lord of Death, (3) skandhamāra (phung po’i bdud), the māra of the aggregates, which is the body, and (4) kleśamāra (nyon mongs pa’i bdud), the māra of the afflictive emotions.

The Buddha’s first teaching, which explains suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering.

Knowledge of phenomena, meaning, etymologies, and eloquence.

Fearlessness in declaring that one has (1) awakened, (2) ceased all illusions, (3) taught the obstacles to awakening, and (4) shown the way to liberation.

The name of an absorption.

The name of a world realm.

A buddhafield in the northwestern direction of the Tathāgata Sovereign Light Display.

A buddhafield in the northern direction of the Tathāgata Countless Qualities Precious Courage.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

A tathāgata in the southwestern buddhafield Virtuous Eye.

A bodhisattva of the past world Stainless who received a dhāraṇī from the Tathāgata Stainless Illumination. A past incarnation of the bodhisattva Dhāraṇīśvara­rāja.

A tathāgata of the past world Virtuous Occurrence.

The name of a tathāgata in the world realm Appearance of the Sovereign of Water.

The tathāgata of the buddhafield, located at the nadir, called Appearing as Illumination.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

The name of our present eon.

A class of devas that, like the yakṣas, are ruled over by Kubera, but are also said to be his most trusted helpers. It is said that they protect his hidden treasures and live in mountain caves.

Special abilities or modes of cognition that arise from meditative realization. They are traditionally listed as five: divine sight, divine hearing, the ability to know past and future lives, the ability to know the minds of others, and the ability to produce miracles.

A buddhafield in the western direction of the Tathāgata Illuminator.

The name of an eon.

(1) Name of tathāgata in the western buddhafield Illuminated . (2) A bodhisattva in the southeastern buddhafield Sorrowless.

The tathāgata of the northeastern buddhafield Pure Immaculate Dwelling.

A bodhisattva in the northeastern buddhafield Pure Immaculate Dwelling.

A tathāgata in the eastern buddhafield Endowed with the Vast Display of the Precious Merits of Endless Qualities.

The four meditations on love (maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekṣā), as well as the states of mind and qualities of being that result from their cultivation. They are also called the four abodes of Brahmā (caturbrahmavihāra). In the Abhidharmakośa, Vasubandhu explains that they are called apramāṇa‍—meaning “infinite” or “limitless”‍—because they take limitless sentient beings as their object, and they generate limitless merit and results. Love is described as the wish that beings be happy, and it acts as an antidote to malice (vyāpāda). Compassion is described as the wish for beings to be free of suffering, and acts as an antidote to harmfulness (vihiṃsā). Joy refers to rejoicing in the happiness beings already have, and it acts as an antidote to dislike or aversion (arati) toward others’ success. Equanimity is considering all beings impartially, without distinctions, and it is the antidote to attachment to both pleasure and malice (kāmarāgavyāpāda).

The name of an absorption.

The lord of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven on the summit of Mount Sumeru. As one of the eight guardians of the directions, Indra guards the eastern quarter. In Buddhist sūtras, he is a disciple of the Buddha and protector of the Dharma and its practitioners. He is often referred to by the epithets Śatakratu, Śakra, and Kauśika.

The name of a dhāraṇī.

Also translated as “understanding.”

One of the factors of awakening.

A divine river.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

The name of a dhāraṇī.

The name of a pavilion emanated by the Buddha.

A mythical two-headed bird that is said to live in the snowy mountains. It is described in Buddhist texts as having a melodious song and is depicted in Buddhist art as resembling a pheasant.

One of the factors of awakening.

In Buddhist literature refers to a mythical bird with the head of a human and the body of a bird. The kalaviṅka’s call is said to be far more beautiful than that of all other birds, and so compelling that it can be heard even before the bird has hatched. The call of the kalaviṅka is thus used as an analogy to describe the voice of the Buddha.

Name of a former buddha usually counted as the second of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kāśyapa, and Śākyamuni.

Name of a former buddha usually counted as the third of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Śākyamuni.

An arhat and disciple the Buddha Śākyamuni. He is counted among the five wandering mendicants (parivrājaka) who initially ridiculed the Buddha’s austerities but later, after the Buddha’s awakening, became one of his first disciples and received his first discourse at Deer Park.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

Name of a former buddha usually counted as the first of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa, and Śākyamuni.

In its most general sense, this term refers to the state of freedom from suffering and cyclic existence, or saṃsāra, that is the goal of the Buddhist path. More specifically, the term may refer to a category of advanced meditative attainment such as those of the “eight liberations.”

The name of an absorption.

A bodhisattva in the northwestern buddhafield Free of Darkness.

This term has three meanings: (1) the ultimate nature, (2) the experience of the ultimate nature, and (3) the quiescent state of a worthy one (arhat) to be avoided by bodhisattvas.

The name of a dhāraṇī.

The name of a seat.

Lit. “topsy-turvy”; in a mixed order. Also translated here as “nonsequential” and “perverted.”

The name of a dhāraṇī.

The name of an absorption.

Also rendered as love. One of the abodes of Brahmā, the other being: joy, equanimity, and compassion.

A being in the Buddha’s assembly.

Third god realm of form, meaning “Great Brahmā,” it is the highest of the three realms of the first dhyāna heaven in the form realms.

One of the Buddha’s principal disciples, he became the Buddha’s successor on his passing.

Synonym of “parinirvāṇa.”

One of the form realms.

Literally “great serpents,” mahoragas are supernatural beings depicted as large, subterranean beings with human torsos and heads and the lower bodies of serpents. Their movements are said to cause earthquakes, and they make up a class of subterranean geomantic spirits whose movement through the seasons and months of the year is deemed significant for construction projects.

The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).

Listed as thirty-two marks on the body of a buddha.

(1) The demon who assailed Śākyamuni prior to his awakening. (2) The deities ruled over by Māra who do not wish any beings to escape from saṃsāra. (3) Any demonic force, the personification of conceptual and emotional obstacles. They are also symbolic of the defects within a person that prevent awakening. See also “four māras.”

A bodhisattva.

Lit. “Son of Māra.”

The means of attracting disciples: generosity, pleasant speech, beneficial conduct, and conduct that accords with the wishes of disciples.

A state of deep concentration in which the mind is absorbed in its object to such a degree that conceptual thought is suspended. It is sometimes interpreted as settling (āhita) the mind in equanimity (sama).

A bodhisattva in the southwestern buddhafield Virtuous Eye.

This is the faculty that enables the mind to maintain its attention on a referent object, counteracting the arising of forgetfulness, which is a great obstacle to meditative stability. The root smṛ may mean “to recollect” but also simply “to think of.” Broadly speaking, smṛti, commonly translated as “mindfulness,” means to bring something to mind, not necessarily something experienced in a distant past but also something that is experienced in the present, such as the position of one’s body or the breath.Together with alertness (samprajāna, shes bzhin), it is one of the two indispensable factors for the development of calm abiding (śamatha, zhi gnas).

Listed as eighty minor signs on the body of a buddha.

See “bases of miraculous power.”

See “evil destinies.”

These are listed as nine: thinking that one’s enemy has harmed, is harming, or will harm oneself; thinking that one’s enemy has harmed, is harming, or will harm one’s friend; and thinking that someone has helped, is helping, or will help one’s enemy.

Morally virtuous or disciplined conduct and the abandonment of morally undisciplined conduct of body, speech, and mind. One of the six perfections of the bodhisattva. Also often rendered as “ethics,” “discipline,” and so on.

The name of an eon in the past.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

The second highest of the six god realms of the desire realm, meaning “Enjoying Emanations.” Its inhabitants magically create the objects of their own enjoyment.

The ultimate cessation of suffering.

Religious or philosophical orders that were contemporary with the early Buddhist order, including Jains, Jaṭilas, Ājīvikas, and Cārvākas.

One who has achieved the third of the four levels of attainment on the śrāvaka path and who will no longer be reborn in saṃsāra.

Lit. “topsy-turvy”; in a mixed order. Also translated here as “loosely organized” and “perverted.” See n.­29.

The name of an absorption and the name of a dhāraṇī.

A bodhisattva in the northern buddhafield Fully Adorned with Jewels.

One who has achieved the second of the four levels of attainment on the śrāvaka path and who will attain liberation after only one more birth.

A bodhisattva in the buddhafield at the nadir called Appearing as Illumination.

The name of a demon said to reside in Para­nirmitavaśavartin.

The highest of the six god realms of the desire realm.

The final stage of passing into nirvāṇa, which occurs when an arhat or a buddha passes away.

Fourth god realm of form, meaning “Lesser Light,” it is the lowest of the three heavens that make up the second dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

Seventh god realm of form, meaning “Lesser Virtue,” it is the lowest of the three heavens that make up the third dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

The highest possible state in saṃsāra, it refers to the highest sphere of the formless realm, the Sphere of neither Perception nor Nonperception.

See “personalistic view.”

View that posits true reality in a person by taking one or more of the five aggregates to consist in a single, lasting, and autonomously existing entity (self). Also known as the view of the transitory collection.

Also translated here as “nonsequential” and “loosely organized.”

Also translated as “righteousness” and “Dharma” (see entry for “Dharma and Vinaya”).

This term refers to the vowels and consonants that make up written or spoken language.Also translated here as “syllable.”

Also translated here as “afflictive emotion.”

“Heap of Insight.” A bodhisattva present in the Buddha’s assembly.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly. His name means, “Eloquence in Language Ascertained through Insight.”

King of the gods of Tuṣita.

The name of a god.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s assembly.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

Also translated as “faculty.”

Eleventh god realm of the form realm, meaning “Increasing Merit,” it is the second of the three heavens that make up the fourth dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

The name given to the five highest levels of existence within the form realm.

A buddhafield in the northeastern direction, where the Tathāgata Immaculate Center of the Sky resides.

The name of a dhāraṇī.

Name of a bodhisattva in the eastern buddhafield Endowed with the Vast Display of the Precious Merits of Endless Qualities.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

A bodhisattva in the southern buddhafield Buddha Courage.

See “ Brahmā realm .”

A synonym for emptiness, the ultimate reality, or the ultimate nature of things. This term is interpreted variously due to the many different meanings of dharma as element, phenomena, reality, truth, and/or the teaching.

Also translated as “dhāraṇī.”

Also translated as “phenomena” and “Dharma” (see entry for “Dharma and Vinaya”).

The site near Vārāṇasī where the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma.

See “evil destinies.”

An ancient Indian spiritual title, often translated as “sage” or “seer.” The title is particularly used for divinely inspired individuals credited with creating the foundations of Indian culture. The term is also applied to Śākyamuni and other realized Buddhist figures.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“capable one”) from the Śākya clan. Usually counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa.

A tathāgata in the past eon Most Fragrant, of the world realm Fragrant .

Though often specifically reserved for the monastic community, this term can be applied to any of the four Buddhist communities‍—monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen‍—as well as to identify the different groups of practitioners, like the community of bodhisattvas or the community of śrāvakas. It is also the third of the Three Jewels (triratna) of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Community.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly. His name means “Revealing the Ornamental Displays of All Buddhafields.”

A seal, in both the literal and metaphoric sense. Mudrā is also the name given to an array of symbolic hand gestures, which range from the gesture of touching the earth displayed by the Buddha upon attaining awakening to the numerous gestures used in tantric rituals to symbolize offerings, consecrations, etc. Iconographically, mudrās are used as a way of communicating an action performed by the deity or a specific aspect a deity or buddha is displaying, in which case the same figure can be depicted using different hand gestures to signify that they are either meditating, teaching, granting freedom from fear, etc. In Tantric texts, the term is also used to designate the female spiritual consort in her various aspects.

The place where the Buddha Śākyamuni achieved awakening and where every buddha will manifest the attainment of buddhahood. In our world this is understood to be located under the Bodhi tree, the Vajrāsana, in present-day Bodhgaya, India. It can also refer to the state of awakening itself.

These can be listed as twelve or as six sense sources (sometimes also called sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas).In the context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, (11–12) mind and mental phenomena.In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned, and they are the inner sense sources (identical to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

Also translated as “well-organized.”

One of the factors of awakening.

The set of seven precious materials or substances includes a range of precious metals and gems, but their exact list varies. The set often consists of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, red pearls, emeralds, and white coral, but may also contain lapis lazuli, ruby, sapphire, chrysoberyl, diamonds, etc. The term is frequently used in the sūtras to exemplify preciousness, wealth, and beauty, and can describe treasures, offering materials, or the features of architectural structures such as stūpas, palaces, thrones, etc. The set is also used to describe the beauty and prosperity of buddha realms and the realms of the gods.In other contexts, the term saptaratna can also refer to the seven precious possessions of a cakravartin or to a set of seven precious moral qualities.

The seven riches of noble beings: faith, morality, generosity, learning, modesty, humility, and insight.

One of the three gates of liberation.

An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late 8th and early 9th centuries.

Lit. “Lion Crest.” The bodhisattva present in the Buddha’s assembly who requests a discourse from Dhāraṇīśvara­rāja.

The objects of the six senses include those of the five physical senses (visual forms, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations) plus the object of the mental faculty, mental phenomena (dharmas).

Six things to keep in mind: the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, generosity, morality, and the gods. See 2.­38

A bodhisattva of the past world Virtuous Occurrence who answers the questions of the Tathāgata Glorious Secret. A past incarnation of the bodhisattva Prajñākūṭa.

A buddhafield in the southeastern direction of the Tathāgata Conqueror of All Sorrow.

A tathāgata in the northwestern buddhafield Free of Darkness.

A bodhisattva in the western buddhafield Illuminated .

A tathāgata of the buddhafield, at the zenith, called Adorned by Ornaments.

A bodhisattva.

A bodhisattva in the buddhafield, at the zenith, called Adorned by Ornaments.

An important form of Buddhist meditation focusing on developing insight into the nature of phenomena. Often presented as part of a pair of meditation techniques, the other being śamatha, “calm abiding”.

Fourth of the four formless realms, also the name of the fourth of the four concentrations (dhyāna).

Those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat by seeking self-liberation. The term is usually defined as “one who hears the Dharma from the Buddha and makes it heard by others.”

(1) A past world where the Tathāgata Stainless Illumination recited a dhāraṇī to the bodhisattva Glorious Light. (2) The name of an eon in the past.

A tathāgata of the past world Stainless who recited a dhāraṇī for the bodhisattva Glorious Light.

A person who has entered the “stream” of practice that leads to nirvāṇa. The first of the four attainments of the śrāvaka path.

See “five strengths” and “ten strengths.”

The Tibetan translates both stūpa and caitya with the same word, mchod rten, meaning “basis” or “recipient” of “offerings” or “veneration.” Pali: cetiya.A caitya, although often synonymous with stūpa, can also refer to any site, sanctuary or shrine that is made for veneration, and may or may not contain relics.A stūpa, literally “heap” or “mound,” is a mounded or circular structure usually containing relics of the Buddha or the masters of the past. It is considered to be a sacred object representing the awakened mind of a buddha, but the symbolism of the stūpa is complex, and its design varies throughout the Buddhist world. Stūpas continue to be erected today as objects of veneration and merit making.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly. His name means, “Brilliant Light Rays of the Collection of Fine Gold.”

Ninth god realm of form, meaning “Most Extensive Virtue,” it is the highest of the three heavens that make up the third dhyāna heaven in the form realm.

Also translated here as “thusness.”

Sixteenth god realm of form, meaning “Great Vision,” it is the fourth of the five heavens that make up the “pure abodes.”

Fifteenth god realm of form, meaning “Sublime Vision,” it is the third of the five “pure abodes” in the form realm.

One of the standard epithets of the buddhas. A recurrent explanation offers three different meanings for su- that are meant to show the special qualities of “accomplishment of one’s own purpose” (svārthasampad) for a complete buddha. Thus, the Sugata is “well” gone, as in the expression su-rūpa (“having a good form”); he is gone “in a way that he shall not come back,” as in the expression su-naṣṭa-jvara (“a fever that has utterly gone”); and he has gone “without any remainder” as in the expression su-pūrṇa-ghaṭa (“a pot that is completely full”). According to Buddhaghoṣa, the term means that the way the Buddha went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su) and where he went (Skt. gata) is good (Skt. su).

King of the gods of Nirmāṇarati.

A buddha in a past eon called Most Fragrant, in the world realm Fragrant . Formerly the god Trainable by Me.

The name of an absorption.

The name of a world system.

King of the gods of Yāma.

Also translated here as “phoneme.”

A region where the sun and moon do not shine.

A frequently used synonym for buddha. According to different explanations, it can be read as tathā-gata, literally meaning “one who has thus gone,” or as tathā-āgata, “one who has thus come.” Gata, though literally meaning “gone,” is a past passive participle used to describe a state or condition of existence. Tatha­(tā), often rendered as “suchness” or “thusness,” is the quality or condition of things as they really are, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms. Therefore, this epithet is interpreted in different ways, but in general it implies one who has departed in the wake of the buddhas of the past, or one who has manifested the supreme awakening dependent on the reality that does not abide in the two extremes of existence and quiescence. It is also often used as a specific epithet of the Buddha Śākyamuni.

A bodhisattva mahāsattva present in the Buddha’s assembly. His name means, “Intelligence in Conduct born from the Tathāgata Lineage.”

Killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, gossip, covetousness, ill will, and wrong view.

One set among the different qualities of a tathāgata. The ten strengths are (1) the knowledge of what is possible and not possible, (2) the knowledge of the ripening of karma, (3) the knowledge of the variety of aspirations, (4) the knowledge of the variety of natures, (5) the knowledge of the different levels of capabilities, (6) the knowledge of the destinations of all paths, (7) the knowledge of various states of meditation, (8) the knowledge of remembering previous lives, (9) the knowledge of deaths and rebirths, and (10) the knowledge of the cessation of defilements.

The name of a discourse.

Also translated here as “bodhicitta.”

This refers to three categories of beings distinguished by a buddha as he appears in the world: (1) noble beings who are defined as “the category of those sure to be correct” (yang dag par nges pa’i phung po), (2) those who have cut the roots of virtue or committed the five deeds with immediate retribution and are defined as “the category of those sure to be wrong” (log par nges pa’i phung po), or (3) others who belong to the “category of those who are undetermined” (ma nges pa’i phung po). They are explained‍—though not with this collective terminology‍—in 2.­317–2.­321. See also n.­46.

Usually synonymous with the three realms of desire, form, and formlessness. Sometimes it means the realm of gods above, humans on the ground, and nāgas below the ground.

See “three liberations.”

Signlessness, wishlessness, and emptiness . Also known as “three gates of liberation.”

The desire realm, form realm, and formless realm. Also referred to as the “three worlds” (’jig rten gsum).

The desire realm, form realm, and formless realm. Also referred to as the “three realms” (khams gsum).

Knowledge through divine sight (lha’i mig gi shes pa), knowledge through remembering past lives (sngon gyi gnas rjes su dran pa’i rig pa), and the knowledge that defilements have ceased (zag pa zad pa’i rig pa).

The ultimate nature of things, or the way things are in reality, as opposed to the way they appear to unawakened beings.

The god of the Brahmā realm , also called Brahmā Sahāṃpati, who encouraged the Buddha Śākyamuni to turn the wheel of Dharma for the first time after his awakening.

A god from the Sphere of neither Perception nor Nonperception who later becomes the Buddha Supreme Precious One.

The second of the six god realms of the desire realm, the abode of the thirty-three gods.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

A shorthand term for the triad of act, object, and agent that characterizes dualistic mind.

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

Tuṣita (or sometimes Saṃtuṣita), literally “Joyous” or “Contented,” is one of the six heavens of the desire realm (kāmadhātu). In standard classifications, such as the one in the Abhidharmakośa, it is ranked as the fourth of the six counting from below. This god realm is where all future buddhas are said to dwell before taking on their final rebirth prior to awakening. There, the Buddha Śākyamuni lived his preceding life as the bodhisattva Śvetaketu. When departing to take birth in this world, he appointed the bodhisattva Maitreya, who will be the next buddha of this eon, as his Dharma regent in Tuṣita. For an account of the Buddha’s previous life in Tuṣita, see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 2.12, and for an account of Maitreya’s birth in Tuṣita and a description of this realm, see The Sūtra on Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy , (Toh 199).

See “twelve links of dependent arising.”

The twelve causal links that perpetuate life in saṃsāra, starting with ignorance and ending with death.

The name of an absorption.

The name of an absorption.

Eighteen qualities that are exclusively possessed by a buddha. These are listed in the as follows: The tathāgata does not possess (1) confusion, (2) noisiness, (3) forgetfulness, (4) loss of meditative equipoise, (5) cognition of distinctness, or (6) nonanalytical equanimity. A buddha totally lacks (7) degeneration of zeal, (8) degeneration of vigor, (9) degeneration of mindfulness, (10) degeneration of absorption, (11) degeneration of insight, (12) degeneration of complete liberation, and (13) degeneration of seeing the wisdom of complete liberation. (14) A tathāgata’s every action of body is preceded by wisdom and followed through with wisdom; (15) every action of speech is preceded by wisdom and followed through with wisdom; (16) a buddha’s every action of mind is preceded by wisdom and followed through with wisdom; and (17) a tathāgata engages in seeing the past through wisdom that is unattached and unobstructed and (18) engages in seeing the present through wisdom that is unattached and unobstructed.

An ideal monarch or emperor who, as the result of the merit accumulated in previous lifetimes, rules over a vast realm in accordance with the Dharma. Such a monarch is called a cakravartin because he bears a wheel (cakra) that rolls (vartate) across the earth, bringing all lands and kingdoms under his power. The cakravartin conquers his territory without causing harm, and his activity causes beings to enter the path of wholesome actions. According to Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, just as with the buddhas, only one cakravartin appears in a world system at any given time. They are likewise endowed with the thirty-two major marks of a great being (mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa), but a cakravartin’s marks are outshined by those of a buddha. They possess seven precious objects: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the wish-fulfilling gem, the queen, the general, and the minister. An illustrative passage about the cakravartin and his possessions can be found in The Play in Full (Toh 95), 3.3–3.13. Vasubandhu lists four types of cakravartins: (1) the cakravartin with a golden wheel (suvarṇacakravartin) rules over four continents and is invited by lesser kings to be their ruler; (2) the cakravartin with a silver wheel (rūpyacakravartin) rules over three continents and his opponents submit to him as he approaches; (3) the cakravartin with a copper wheel (tāmracakravartin) rules over two continents and his opponents submit themselves after preparing for battle; and (4) the cakravartin with an iron wheel (ayaścakravartin) rules over one continent and his opponents submit themselves after brandishing weapons.

The northern continent of the human world according to traditional Indian cosmology, meaning “Unpleasant Sound.”

The Catur­mahā­rāja of the northern direction who rules over the yakṣas.

Vajrapāṇi means “Wielder of the Vajra.” In the Pali canon, he appears as a yakṣa guardian in the retinue of the Buddha. In the Mahāyāna scriptures he is a bodhisattva and one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha.” In the tantras, he is also regarded as an important Buddhist deity and instrumental in the transmission of tantric scriptures.

Also known as Benares, one of the oldest cities of northeast India on the banks of the Ganges, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh. It was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kāśi, and in the Buddha’s time it had been absorbed into the kingdom of Kośala. It was an important religious center, as well as a major city, even during the time of the Buddha. The name may derive from being where the Varuna and Assi rivers flow into the Ganges. It was on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī that the Buddha first taught the Dharma, in the location known as Deer Park (Mṛgadāva). For numerous episodes set in Vārāṇasī, including its kings, see The Hundred Deeds , Toh 340.

King of the gods of Para­nirmitavaśavartin.

Epithet of a buddha.

Also translated here as “diligent.”

A buddhafield in the southwestern direction of the Tathāgata Gazing at All Beings with Great Compassion.

A past world where the Tathāgata Glorious Secret lived along with the bodhisattva Smṛtibuddhi, a past incarnation of the bodhisattva Prajñākūṭa.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

Also translated as “sequential.”

One of the three gates of liberation.

One of the preta realms.

Refers to any world or group of worlds illumined by one sun and moon, its own Mount Meru, continents, desire, form, and formless realms, etc. Also rendered here as world realm.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

The fourth of the six god realms of the desire realm.

A measure of distance sometimes translated as “league,” but with varying definitions. The Sanskrit term denotes the distance yoked oxen can travel in a day or before needing to be unyoked. From different canonical sources the distance represented varies between four and ten miles.