The four dhyānas, the four formless absorptions, and the absorption of cessation.

Teacher (sometimes more specifically the deputy or substitute of the upādhyāya ).

The essentially pure nature of mind is obscured and afflicted by various psychological defilements, which destroy the mind’s peace and composure and lead to unwholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, acting as causes for continued existence in saṃsāra. Included among them are the primary afflictions of desire (rāga), anger (dveṣa), and ignorance (avidyā). It is said that there are eighty-four thousand of these negative mental qualities, for which the eighty-four thousand categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. Kleśa is also commonly translated as “negative emotions,” “disturbing emotions,” and so on. The Pāli kilesa, Middle Indic kileśa, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit kleśa all primarily mean “stain” or “defilement.” The translation “affliction” is a secondary development that derives from the more general (non-Buddhist) classical understanding of √kliś (“to harm,“ “to afflict”). Both meanings are noted by Buddhist commentators.

Five collections of similar dharmas, under which all compounded dharmas may be included; form, feeling, notions, factors, and consciousness.

“Kauṇḍinya Who Understood.” Name of the first monk that the Buddha Śākyamuni recognized as having understood his teachings.

A divine girl.

According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.

The first level of noble ones when practicing the path of the hearers.

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

Epithet of the buddhas, meaning “one who has fortune” (explained as having six features); or “one who has vanquished (Māra).”

Name of a bodhisattva, “King of Medicine.”

Name of a bodhisattva, “Medicine-Risen Up.”

In the general Mahāyāna teachings the mind of awakening (bodhicitta) is the intention to attain the complete awakening of a perfect buddha for the sake of all beings. On the level of absolute truth, the mind of awakening is the realization of the awakened state itself.

Someone who practices according to the Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas; one who aims for complete buddhahood; “awakening hero;” “one who has a wish for awakening;” “one who awakens sentient beings.”

A high-ranking deity who presides over a divine world where other beings consider him the creator; he is also considered to be the Lord of the Sahā-world (our universe).

The field of activity of a specific buddha.

Name of a bodhisattva, “Intellect-Splendor.” However, the Tibetan suggests “Buddha-” rather than “Buddhi-,” which would then mean “Buddha-Splendor.”

Name of a mountain range in Buddhist cosmology.

A non-Buddhist wanderer, often grouped with the Parivrājakas.

The tenth and highest of the levels in the bodhisattva path.

Name of a bodhisattva, “Wealth-Splendor.”

Among many of its meanings, this term can refer to: the teachings of the Buddha; positive actions that accord with those teachings; or a minimal element of existence, which bears certain features through which it may be cognized.

When a buddha gives his first teaching he “sets in motion the Wheel of Dharma,” just like a monarch with exceptional merit sets in motion a magical wheel that easily subdues all his enemies.

“The sphere of dharmas,” “the base of dharmas,” “the ore of dharmas”‍—a synonym for the nature of things.

One of the subdivisions in the collection of dharmas that constitutes a buddha, variously explained but usually more closely related to the aspect of ultimate truth.

The real nature, true quality, or condition of things. Throughout Buddhist discourse this term is used in two distinct ways. In one, it designates the relative nature that is either the essential characteristic of a specific phenomenon, such as the heat of fire and the moisture of water, or the defining feature of a specific term or category. The other very important and widespread way it is used is to designate the ultimate nature of all phenomena, which cannot be conveyed in conceptual, dualistic terms and is often synonymous with emptiness or the absence of intrinsic existence.

A very high level of samādhi obtained during the last stages of the Buddhist path.

The eight right modes are right view, right thought, right speech, right actions, right livelihood, right effort, right recollection, and right samādhi.

The eight wrong modes are wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong actions, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong recollection, and wrong samādhi.

Eighteen collections of similar dharmas, under which all compounded and uncompounded dharmas may be included: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind, plus their objects: visible forms, sounds, smells, flavors, touchables, and dharmas, plus the consciousnesses corresponding to each of the first six.

These can be listed as twelve or as six entrances (sometimes also called sense sources, sense fields, bases of cognition, or simply āyatanas): In context of epistemology, it is one way of describing experience and the world in terms of twelve sense sources, which can be divided into inner and outer sense sources, namely: (1–2) eye and form, (3–4) ear and sound, (5–6) nose and odor, (7–8) tongue and taste, (9–10) body and touch, and (11–12) mind and mental phenomena. (These are subsumed in the eighteen bases or elements, where to the twelve sense sources, the six consciousnesses are added.) In the context of the twelve links of dependent origination, only six sense sources are mentioned and they are the inner sense sources (similar to the six faculties) of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

Faith, diligence, recollection, samādhi, and wisdom (śraddhā, vīrya, smṛti, samādhi , and prajñā).

Longing for desires (kāmacchanda), malice (vyāpāda), sloth and torpor (styānamiddha), excitement and remorse (auddhatya­kaukṛtya), and doubt (vicikitsā).

Taking what is impure as pure; what is impermanent as permanent; what is suffering as happiness; and what is nonself as a self.

Mindfulness of the body, feelings, the mind, and dharmas.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

The same as the Bodhisattva Vehicle, whose practitioners aim at complete buddhahood.

Someone who practices according to the Vehicle of the Hearers (those who hear the teachings from others); or, someone who heard the Dharma from the Buddha.

See “five hindrances.”

A stage in the bodhisattva path where the practitioner will never turn back.

A river whose gold is believed to be especially good.

The continent (dvīpa) on which we live which, according to ancient South-Asian cosmology, is shaped like a jambū fruit (probably Syzygium cumini, the jambolan, Malabar plum, or Java plum; or possibly S. amarangense, the Java apple, rose-apple, or wax jambu).

Intention or what follows an intention. Intention is mental karma; what follows an intention is verbal and bodily karma.

A class of nonhuman beings that resemble humans to the degree that their very name‍—which means “is that human?”‍—suggests some confusion as to their divine status. Kinnaras are mythological beings found in both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, where they are portrayed as creatures half human, half animal. They are often depicted as highly skilled celestial musicians.

See “seven limbs of awakening.”

Name of a mountain range in Buddhist cosmology.

Mañjuśrī is one of the “eight close sons of the Buddha” and a bodhisattva who embodies wisdom. He is a major figure in the Mahāyāna sūtras, appearing often as an interlocutor of the Buddha. In his most well-known iconographic form, he is portrayed bearing the sword of wisdom in his right hand and a volume of the Prajñā­pāramitā­sūtra in his left. To his name, Mañjuśrī, meaning “Gentle and Glorious One,” is often added the epithet Kumārabhūta, “having a youthful form.” He is also called Mañjughoṣa, Mañjusvara, and Pañcaśikha.

The personification of negativity. In the Sanskrit tradition, four Māras are usually listed: the aggregates, the afflictions, the god Māra (the god of infatuation), and death.

According to ancient Buddhist cosmology, this is the great mountain forming the axis of the universe. At its summit is Sudarśana, home of Śakra and his thirty-two gods, and on its flanks live the asuras. The mount has four sides facing the cardinal directions, each of which is made of a different precious stone. Surrounding it are several mountain ranges and the great ocean where the four principal island continents lie: in the south, Jambudvīpa (our world); in the west, Godānīya; in the north, Uttarakuru; and in the east, Pūrvavideha. Above it are the abodes of the desire realm gods. It is variously referred to as Meru, Mount Meru, Sumeru, and Mount Sumeru.

A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.

Thinking that someone harms oneself, harms someone dear to oneself, or benefits someone dear to oneself, each in the present, past, or future.

A type of non-Buddhist religious practitioner.

The “blowing off” of suffering; the state of freedom from the suffering of saṃsāra.

Someone who has entered the “path of seeing,” i.e., who has a direct and stable realization of selflessness, ceases to be an “ordinary person” and becomes a noble one.

The third level of noble ones when practicing the path of the hearers (bound to never be reborn).

The second level of noble ones when practicing the path of the hearers (bound to be born again no more than once).

Someone who follows his or her goal out of trust in someone else.

Someone who follows his or her goal according to the teaching of the sūtras and so forth.

According to the Abhi­dharma­kośa­bhāṣya, both those who “follow out of conviction” and those who “follow due to the Dharma” are actually “following the meaning/goal.” On the other hand, the JAA seems to take this as a separate subdivision.

Anyone who has not entered the “Path of Seeing” (i.e., has no stable direct realization of selflessness) is an ordinary person as opposed to a noble one.

Mental afflictions can be called outflows since they “flow out,” i.e., they are caused by certain dharmas (said to be “with outflows”).

A non-Buddhist religious practitioner who “roams around.”

A set of practices to be completely mastered (until one reaches their “other shore”) for those on the bodhisattva path. They are listed as either six or ten.

Sitting, standing, lying down, walking.

Literally, “buddha for oneself” or “solitary realizer.” Someone who, in his or her last life, attains awakening entirely through their own contemplation, without relying on a teacher. Unlike the awakening of a fully realized buddha (samyaksambuddha), the accomplishment of a pratyeka­buddha is not regarded as final or ultimate. They attain realization of the nature of dependent origination, the selflessness of the person, and a partial realization of the selflessness of phenomena, by observing the suchness of all that arises through interdependence. This is the result of progress in previous lives but, unlike a buddha, they do not have the necessary merit, compassion or motivation to teach others. They are named as “rhinoceros-like” (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) for their preference for staying in solitude or as “congregators” (vargacārin) when their preference is to stay among peers.

One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.­1281– 2.1482.

The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha‍—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)‍—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.

The lord of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (trāyastriṃśa). Alternatively known as Indra, the deity that is called “lord of the gods” dwells on the summit of Mount Sumeru and wields the thunderbolt. The Tibetan translation brgya byin (meaning “one hundred sacrifices”) is based on an etymology that śakra is an abbreviation of śata-kratu, one who has performed a hundred sacrifices. Each world with a central Sumeru has a Śakra. Also known by other names such as Kauśika, Devendra, and Śacipati.

Placing the mind on an object of attention, or sometimes more generally, a meditative state.

The continuum of repeated birth and death.

Recollection, analysis of the dharmas, diligence, joy, pliancy, samādhi, equanimity.

“Banner of Discipline;” the name of the person who sponsored the writing of the manuscript of the JAA.

Eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

Remembrance of the Buddha, the Dharma, the Saṅgha, relinquishing, discipline, and the gods.

A Buddhist sacred monument usually holding the relics of a buddha or some highly revered Buddhist master.

Name of hall where the gods of the Thirty-Three assemble to listen to the Dharma.

An epithet of the Buddha meaning “well-gone one,” “gone to bliss,” “easily understood.”

See “Meru.”

An Indian paṇḍiṭa resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

Usually referring to a discourse by the Buddha; sometimes to just a few sentences by the Buddha; or also, when not referring to the words of the Buddha, any concise doctrinal statement.

An epithet of the Buddha, meaning “one who has gone, reached, or had realized in that way.”

The state in which things are; “thusness.”

The nature of things; their actual state; “thatness.”

Killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, speaking what is false, divisive speech, harsh speech, scattered speech, covetousness, wish to harm, and wrong view (three of the body, four of speech, and three of the mind).

The opposite of the ten unwholesome courses of karma.

A class of gods.

The Hearers’ Vehicle, the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and the Bodhisattva Vehicle.

The realm of desire, the realm of form, and the formless realm (under which the whole universe is subsumed).

A non-Buddhist religious practitioner who relies on sacred “fords” (tīrtha).

The transitory collection of the five aggregates, the basis for the view of a self or that which belongs to a self.

The largest universe described in Buddhist cosmology. This term, in Abhidharma cosmology, refers to 1,000³ world systems, i.e., 1,000 “dichiliocosms” or “two thousand great thousand world realms” (dvi­sāhasra­mahā­sāhasra­lokadhātu), which are in turn made up of 1,000 first-order world systems, each with its own Mount Sumeru, continents, sun and moon, etc.

Twelve successive parts in which to subdivide the longest possible process of dependent arising for one sentient being: ignorance, formations, consciousness, name and form, six entrances, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, old age, and death.

The extreme of permanence (of a self through many lives) and the extreme of cutting off (i.e., the cessation of consciousness after one life).

Teacher, (monastic) preceptor; “having approached him, one studies from him” (upetyādhīyate asmāt).

This could refer to the Ratnakūṭa collection of sūtras as it is known in the Kangyur and Chinese canons; however, as the collection is not known to have existed, as such, in earlier times, this could also be either a general term covering Mahāyāna sūtras as a category, or a synonym for the Kāśyapa­parivarta.

An architectural element similar to a pedestal.

The Gṛdhra­kūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.

A class of nonhuman beings who inhabit forests, mountainous areas, and other natural spaces, or serve as guardians of villages and towns, and may be propitiated for health, wealth, protection, and other boons, or controlled through magic. According to tradition, their homeland is in the north, where they live under the rule of the Great King Vaiśravaṇa. Several members of this class have been deified as gods of wealth (these include the just-mentioned Vaiśravaṇa) or as bodhisattva generals of yakṣa armies, and have entered the Buddhist pantheon in a variety of forms, including, in tantric Buddhism, those of wrathful deities.

The king of the preta realm.